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ABSTRACT
This article sheds light on a paradox in the Soviet educational landscape: the development of specialised foreign-language schools in the context of a purported egalitarian society. These schools endured, and even thrived, through the collapse of the Soviet Union. First, a historical overview for Soviet-era development of specialised-school policies is provided. Second, the development of these specialised schools both generally, as well as in the particular context of the Estonian Soviet Republic, is described. Alumni interviews, archival materials and educational publications provide primary source material for this study. Finally, the article explores criticism of the specialised school.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank professor emeritus William Fierman for his valuable comments and suggestions on the manuscript.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. For more see Bereday, “Japanese Studies”; Chabe, “Soviet Society”; Dailey, “Recent Changes”; DeWitt, “The October Revolution,”; King, Communist Education, Lilge, “Impressions of Soviet Education,”; Matthews, Education in the Soviet Union, Werstler, “Soviet Education Today.”
2. For more see Maiofis, “Работа с понятиями”; Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy”; Shelestjuk, “Вестернизация в СССР”; Smirnova, “Изучение Иностранных Языков.”;
3. Interviews with the alumni, individual and focus-group interviews with foreign-language teachers and archival documents.
4. The selection of the participants started from personal relationships with the alumni in Estonia, leading to a snowball method: the participants were asked to suggest further participants who were then contacted by the first author of the article. All the contacted alumni agreed to participate in the study.
5. The participants were selected in three ways: through personal relationships, on recommendation of alumni and on recommendation of specialised schools’ principals.
6. For comparison, the literacy rate of Russian Germans was 78.8%, and of Estonians 88–90%.
7. Mchitarjan, “John Dewey.”
8. Engerman, “John Dewey.”
9. Haskell, “Modernization on Trial”; Engerman, “John Dewey,” 33.
10. Byford, “Policies and Practices.”
11. Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union.
12. Engerman, “John Dewey,” 47–8; Mchitarjan, “John Dewey,” 110; Byford, “Policies and Practices,” 422; Kaser, “Resources for Russian Education.”
13. Livschiz, “Pre-Revolutionary in Form”; Peters, “Education.”
14. Livschiz, “Pre-Revolutionary in Form,” 549.
15. Ibid.
16. Mincu, “Communist Education.”
17. Maiofis, “Работа с понятиями,” 18.
18. Livschiz, “Pre-Revolutionary in Form,” 542.
19. Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy,” 322.
20. Shelestjuk, “Вестернизация в СССР,” 72.
21. Garrard, “The Teaching of Foreign Languages”; Ter-Minasova, “Traditions and Innovations.”
22. Mlikotin, “Soviet Methods.”
23. Campbell-Thomson, “LV Shcherba.”
24. Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy,” 322–3.
25. Ķestere et al., History of Education.
26. Elango, Eesti Kooli Ajalugu.
27. Presidential decision (Riigivanema otsus) no. 597. Riigi Teataja 66, August 7, 1934, 1192.
28. “Keskkoolide seaduse muutmise seadus” (Act to Change the Act of Secondary Schools), Riigi Teataja 98, November 27, 1936, 2078.
29. Laul, Gustav Adolfi Gümnaasium.
30. Uustalu, Gustav Adolfi Gümnaasium.
31. “Kes olid kodumaal kõige suuremad keeletargad?” (Who were the greatest linguists in the home country?), Free Estonian Word, August 12, 1982.
32. Pilve, “Aga vene ajal.”
33. Dailey, “Recent Changes,” 20.
34. Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union, 211.
35. Marten, “Negotiating a Place.”
36. Eksta, “Rõõmu olgu.”
37. Lewis, Multilingualism.
38. Kimmel, “Kogemusi Võõrkeelte.”
39. In real life, ordinary Soviet people could not travel abroad and if they could, almost only to Soviet-friendly countries; literature in foreign languages actually meant literature from Soviet-friendly countries.
40. Maiofis, “Работа с понятиями,” 9.
41. Dunstan, Paths to Excellence.
42. Resolution No. 468, May 27, 1961, Estonian Pedagogical Archives and Museum (EPAM), No. R30212-9
43. Resolution No. 388, September 1, 1961, EPAM, No. R30212-9.
44. A few years later, Leida Vahtra became one of the two authors of the first series of English coursebooks for specialised schools written and published in Estonia, called “Step.” She was also an English teacher of the first specialised class in Estonia, at School No. 7. Vahtra, “Võõrkeel algklassides.”
45. Kiviväli, “Haridussüsteemist Suurbritannias.”
46. Kann, “Muljeid Moskvas”; Liiv, “Mõningaid näitlikustamise võtteid”; Vool, “Kõnekeele õpetamise võimalusi.”
47. Editorial page, Soviet School No. 2, 1962.
48. EPAM, No. EP.3.624.
49. Kheimets, “English as a Central Component.”
50. Matthews, Education, 28; Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy,” 326; Garrard, “The Teaching of Foreign Languages,” 72; Meristo, “Foreign-Language Teachers.”
51. Lewis, Multilingualism, 7.
52. Matthews, Education, 28; Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy,” 326.
53. Eksta, “Rõõmu olgu.”
54. Shturman, ”The Differentiation of Opportunities,” 156.
55. Dunstan, Paths to Excellence, 98.
56. Matthews, Education, 28; Pavlenko, “Language of the Enemy,” 326; Garrard, “The Teaching of Foreign Languages,” 72; Meristo, “Foreign-Language Teachers.”
57. Regulation, EPAM, No. R30214-5.
58. Mlikotin, “Soviet Methods.”
59. “Võõrkeelte õpetajate konverentsilt.”
60. Dailey, “Recent Changes,” 20.
61. Shelestjuk, “Вестернизация в СССР,” 72.
62. Ter-Minasova, “Traditions and Innovations,” 447.
63. Shelestjuk, “Вестернизация в СССР,” 76.
64. Eisen, Põhilistest eriarvamustest.
65. Kraav, “Eriklassid ja õpetajad.”
66. Sepp, Süvendatud Õpetamisest.
67. Shturman, “The Differentiation of Opportunities.”