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ABSTRACT
While maintaining minimal deterrence capabilities, South America’s has not experienced inter-state warfare in almost three decades. Internal security challenges exist, while militaries are involved in various other missions, including humanitarian assistance, search-and-rescue, combating wildfires, and combating environmental crimes like illegal fishing and illegal mining. This analysis will discuss the evolving role of South American insurgencies vis-à-vis small wars, insurgencies, and other combat and non-combat missions by focusing on regional air fleets. The types of rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft Air Forces, Armies, and Navies are purchasing (or domestically manufacturing) explain what kinds of missions and threats armed services are focused on today and tomorrow’s priorities. Small case studies of helicopter and combat warplane fleets across South American militaries will help us understand what regional services spend their often-limited funds on. Moreover, we will address how regional air fleets may be composed a decade from now, by 2034, considering regional geopolitics, missions, and priorities (including environmental protection). Confidence-building mechanisms and the influence, or lack thereof, of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on recent acquisition programs and strategies will provide a more complete analysis.
Supplementary material
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2336089.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Sánchez, “Whatever happened to South America’s splendid little wars?”
2. Ultima Hora, “Paz del Chaco: 87 años de la firma que puso fin a la guerra de los 100.000 muertos.”
3. This list does not take into account U.S. military operations in the region such as Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989), or multinational operations like in the Dominican Republic (1965) or the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (2004–2017).
4. García, “La Memoria de la Mal llamada ’Guerra del Fútbol.”
5. Skaar and Malca: 5–6.
6. BBC Mundo, “La histórica disputa en Centroamérica por la soberanía en el golfo de Fonseca (y por qué se reavivó ahora).”
7. International Court of Justice, “Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia).”
8. International Court of Justice, “Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile).”
9. France24, “Noboa declara la guerra en Ecuador.”
10. Sánchez, “The Rebirth of Insurgency in Peru.”
11. Academic research about the ideologies of the remaining narco-insurgent movements in South America is limited. See: Bolívar & Lizarazo, “Sistema educativo y cohision ideologica en las FARC-EP.”
12. Rettberg and Moreno, “Rastreando la transición de guerrilla a partido político en Colombia.”
13. Traeder, “¿Es la mano dura de Nayib Bukele estrategia o propaganda?”
14. Ortiz, “Cuestionan a Boluarte por responsabilizar a las FF. AA. y Policía por muertos en protestas.”
15. Ortiz, Roman: 3.
16. Nunn, “Hacua un acercamiento histórico e imprescindible”: 117.
17. Air Force (Ecuador), Twitter/X Post.
18. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Golpe al GAOr que delinque en Meta.”
19. Air Force (Paraguay), Facebook Post.
20. Air Force (Brazil), “FAB intercepta aeronave carregada com 663 kg de drogas.”
21. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Perú, Brasil y Colombia se unen en el Ejercicio Amazonas II.”
22. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Lancha con cargamento de cocaína fue interceptada en cercanías a San Andrés Isla”, Also see: Navy (Colombia), “Incautada cocaína en altamar avaluada en más de 60 millones de dólares.”
23. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Continúan esfuerzos articulados con la Fuerza Aérea para la extinción de incendio en Providencia.”
24. Ministry of Defense (Bolivia), Facebook Post.
25. Rojas, “FACH participo del lanzamiento el plan de prevencion, mitigacion, y control de incendios 2023–2024.”
26. Navy (Uruguay), “Rescate de tripulante con síntomas de infarto en un buque en altamar”, Navy (Uruguay).
27. Joint Forces Command (Peru), X/Twitter Post.
28. Army (Brazil), “2ª Brigada de Infantaria de Selva executa evacuação aeromédica de criança indígena da etnia Yanomami.”
29. Andina (Peru), “Imágenes de la FAP en Madre de Dios confirma que minería ilegal es el mayor problema.”
30. Aviación Digital, “Un avión no tripulado de la Fuerza Aérea de Chile cae.”
31. Andina (Peru), “En marzo inician evaluación de base aérea El Pato como sede del puerto espacial del Perú.”
32. Air Force (Argentina), “Con 5 helicópteros SA 315B Lama.”
33. Faria, “Novos Gripens da FAB são transportados do Porto ao Aeroporto de Navegantes.”
34. Mosle, “Argentina retiró sus aviones Mirage, tras 43 años de servicio y 131 mil horas de vuelo.”
35. Dubois, “El reemplazo de los Kfir colombianos se definirá entre el F-16 y el Gripen.”
36. El Comercio (Ecuador), “9 de 12 aviones Cheetah no vuelan por falta de piezas.”
37. Potential suppliers include the British Aerospace Hawk 200, Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano, and the Hongdu L-15 Falcon (also known as Hongdu JL-10) aircraft.
38. Rivas, “Fewer fighters: Combat aviation struggles to stay aloft in Latin America.”
39. According to media reports, the Super Etendard planes are incapable of flight yet. Kollman, “El escándalo de los aviones que no pueden volar.”
40. Textron, “Ministry of Defense of Argentina to Acquire Six Bell 407GXi Aircraft.”
41. Ministry of Defense (Argentina), “Taiana visitó la fábrica aeronáutica Leonardo y firmó una carta de intención para avanzar en la incorporación de helicópteros AW 109 para vigilancia y control en el Atlántico Sur.”
42. Paez, “Gobierno cancela compra de helicópteros y decide repotenciar aeronaves rusas.”
43. Valley of the Apurimac, Ene and Mantaro Rivers.
44. Wiltgen, “Esquadrão HA-1 recebe o quinto Super Lynx modernizado.”
45. Ministry of Defense (Uruguay), “Helicóptero Bell 212 donado por Estados Unidos.”
46. Ministry of Defense (Argentina), “La Fuerza Aérea Paraguaya formalizó una declaración para adquirir el avión IA100 fabricado por FadeA.”
47. Ministry of Defense (Chile), “Proyecto Pillán II: Ministerio de Defensa presenta iniciativa que permitirá construir nuevo sistema de instrucción de vuelo para pilotos de la FACh.”
48. Air Force (Paraguay), “Recepción de las aeronaves T-35 Pillan.”
49. Ministry of Defense (Peru), “Fuerza Aérea recibió el último de los aviones KT-1P coproducidos en el Perú.”
50. Air Force (Brazil), “FAB recebe nova unidade da aeronave H-36 Caracal.”
51. Bragatti & Weiffen: 2.
52. Bragatti & Weiffen: 2.
53. Deare: 17.
54. Varas, “Security and Cooperation in Post-Cold War Latin America.”: 3.
55. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Dieciocho nuevos pilotos de helicóptero, al servicio de Colombia y Panamá.”
56. For example Colombia’s IAI Kfirs, Brazil’s Saab Gripens or Chile’s Lockheed F-16s. A light aerial combat platform would be the Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano, or the Cessna A-37 Dragonfly.
57. Aerospace Force (Colombia), Fuerza Aérea Colombiana bombardea campamento del frente 24 de las Farc en Bolivar.”
58. BBC, “Máquinas de guerra.”
59. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Fuerza Aérea Colombiana bombardea campamento del ELN.”
60. Colombia +20, “Petro reitera ofensiva contra Clan del Golfo.”
61. Army (Colombia), “Ejército Nacional captura a cinco integrantes de la Estructura 48 Comandos de Frontera en Putumayo.”
62. For an analysis of Colombia’s gunships see: Newdick, “There’s one place in the world where AC-47 Spoky gunships still fly’. Newdick explains, ‘for anti-guerrilla missions, the AC-47T can also serve as an airborne forward air controller (FAC-A) or airborne command post, with the navigator coordinating the operation below. With an endurance of up to 10 hours, the Fantasma is ideal for this role.”
63. Dealie “The Future of the Bomber in an Air Superiority Role.”: 63.
64. Ibid: 69.
65. Army (Ecuador), “El Ejército Ecuatoriano informa.”, X/Twitter post.
66. Rojas, “Así se planean bombardeos, el arma más temida por grupos ilegales.”
67. Airpower and irregular warfare is a topic that has been researched. See: Farquhar,“Airpower and Irregular War’, and Newton ‘Air Power, Coercion, and … Irregular Warfare?”
68. EFE, “Ministro uruguayo: compra de aviones a España fue ‘excelente y envidiada.”
69. Air Force (Argentina), “La Fuerza Aérea Argentina presentó su quinto Beechcraft B-200 Hurón.”
70. García, “Ecuador signs contract with Airbus for two C295s.”
71. Ministry of Defense (Peru), “Mindef: aviones Boeing anunciados por la presidenta son prioritarios para atención de desastres y emergencia.”
72. Barolin Torales and Belén Serra: 49.
73. IUU fishing in South America occurs in three ways:
1. At the domestic level: a fishing vessel from country X operates without authorization within the waters of the crew’s home nation;
2. At the international regional level: a fishing vessel from country X operates without authorization in the waters of neighboring state Y;
3. Distant-water fishing fleets travel across continents and oceans to operate in international waters and exclusive economic zones of South American states. Most distant-water fishing vessels which operate in South American waters come from China.
74. Navy (Chile), “Tercera Zona Naval monitorea flota pesquera extranjera que transita por el Estrecho de Magallanes.”
75. Zona Militar, “La Armada de Chile desplegó un helicóptero Dauphin.”
76. Delgado, “Armada Argentina fortalece su flota para controlar la pesca ilegal.”
77. Ministry of Defense (Peru), “Veinte mil imágenes de áreas naturales registrará la Fuerza Aérea.”
78. Air Force (Brazil), “FAB completa seis meses de atuação de apoio humanitário na TIY.”
79. Aerospace Force (Colombia), “Más de 100 animales en vía de extinción.”
80. Hunter: 4.
81. Ruiz and Verdes-Montenegro: 5.
82. Ruiz and Verdes-Montenegro: 5.
83. Sanabria Moyano, & Rodriguez-Vivas, “El Medio Ambiente como Victima del Conflicto Armado”: 72.
84. Maia Neto, “Efficiency of Strategic Management in Latin America” in Vera Delzo: 313.
85. Fossum, “US provides Chevron limited authorization to pump oil in Venezuela after reaching humanitarian agreement” Also see: Lujan, “Crecen las expectativas económicas en Venezuela para el último trimestre del año”.
86. Hernández, “La Armada de Venezuela exhibe sus lanzacohetes múltiples de origen iraní.”
87. Tirpark, “The Future Force’ Also see: Johnson, ‘What’s the future for crewed aircraft in combat?”
88. Rivas, “Argentina buys Uvision loitering munitions from Israel.”
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Wilder Alejandro Sanchez
Wilder Alejandro Sanchez is an analyst who focuses on defense and security, geopolitical, and trade issues across the Western Hemisphere, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. He is president of Second Floor Strategies, a consulting firm based in Washington, DC. He is also a non-resident research associate at the Center for Strategic and International Studies and Expediente Abierto. His analyses have appeared in numerous refereed journals, including the SAIS Review of International Affairs, Small Wars and Insurgencies, Defence Studies, the Polar Journal, the Journal of Slavic Military Studies, European Security, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, and Perspectivas. He has published book chapters on Bolivia’s foreign policy, separatism in Moldova, and Kazakhstan’s economic diversification policies.