Process Logs: A Tool to Promote Self-Reflection During Consultation Supervision and Document Consultee-Centered Outcomes

ABSTRACT

The use of process logs in consultation supervision can facilitate training in process and consultee-centered administrative consultation by emphasizing consultation competencies. Process logs examine various elements that support positive outcomes within a collaborative relationship, such as adherence to the problem-solving process, the use of communication skills, and considerations about diversity. Given that research on consultation training and supervision outcomes is limited, we present the process log as a learning tool that can be used within a structured supervision process that promotes trainees’ self-reflection, bolstering pre-service consultation training in school psychology. First, we review the literature on the components of effective consultation training, including process logs and supervision. Then, we provide a case example to describe how the process log was utilized by a consultant-in-training to engage in critical self-reflection and document positive consultation outcomes.

Consultation occupies a large portion of school psychologists’ work responsibilities (Filter et al., 2013) and is intended to permeate all aspects of service delivery (National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], 2020). Given overwhelming school psychologist-to-student ratios in the United States (1 school psychologist for 1,211 students; NASP, 2021; Schilling et al., 2023), school psychologists cannot feasibly provide direct services to all students. Therefore, they must share their expertise with teachers, administrators, and parents to positively affect academic, behavior, and mental health outcomes for students. Thus, consultation occurs when consultants (e.g., school psychologists) collaborate with consultees (e.g., teachers, administrators, parents) and employ the problem-solving process to improve client (e.g., student, system) outcomes (Erchul et al., 2014). Generally, the problem-solving process includes five stages: problem identification, problem analysis, plan development (goals, intervention design), plan implementation (intervention acceptability, integrity), and plan evaluation (Pluymert, 2014).

Despite the importance of consultation in school psychology practice, consultation training in school psychology graduate programs is lacking (Anton LaHart & Rosenfield, 2004; M. Newell et al., 2020; Newman et al., 2018). Knowledge of assessment and intervention are not adequate to be an effective consultant in practice (Anton LaHart & Rosenfield, 2004; Newman, Barrett, et al., 2015). Rather, consultation has its own unique set of competencies (M. Newell et al., 2020) and consultation training is intended to build those competencies within the context of school psychology graduate training. The American Psychological Association’s education and training guidelines for consulting psychology (APA, 2017) outline several competencies to be an effective consultant, including self-awareness, self-management, relationship development, and diversity competence. These competencies are developed through reflection on one’s values and beliefs, and by analyzing interpersonal exchanges in professional settings (Crespi & Alicandro, 2020; Gullette et al., 2019). Unfortunately, training in interpersonal (e.g., relationship building) and intrapersonal skills (e.g., self-reflection) is limited and research has suggested that contemporary consultation training does not sufficiently equip future consultants with the confidence and perceived ability to affect client change (Barrett et al., 2017; Newman, Barrett, et al., 2015).

Professional competence is gained through structured and supervised educational activities (McCutcheon, 2009). Such activities include didactic coursework, applied practicum experiences, and supervision. Research has also suggested that the number of consultation courses taken, exposure to formal consultation models (e.g., consultee-centered), and the number of supervision strategies employed are significant predictors of confidence to consult at graduation (Barrett et al., 2017). Thus, an array of structured supervision strategies may be necessary for effective consultation training. However, consistent, structured, individual supervision has been uncommon (Anton LaHart & Rosenfield, 2004) and few studies have described the types of tools that can be used to facilitate the supervision process. Tools that support high-quality supervision capture growth in consultation skill development during training and document progression through the stages of the consultation process (Hazel et al., 2010; M. L. Newell et al., 2013; Newman, 2012; Roberts et al., 2005).

This article highlights the process log, as one type of structured tool, that can be used during the supervision process. The process log is a structured template used to document the work of the consultant-in-training (CIT) and elicit self-reflection on several core consultation competencies: the problem-solving process, defining characteristics and assumptions of consultation models, diversity, communication skills and the collaborative relationship, and the use of research evidence (Newman & Rosenfield, 2018). These competencies align with the American Psychological Association’s education and training guidelines for consulting psychology (American Psychological Association, 2017), as well as empirical literature examining the effective components of consultation training (e.g., Barrett et al., 2017). The overarching purpose of this article is to describe the process log as an innovative strategy to bolster consultation competencies (American Psychological Association, 2017) and present a case example illustrating how the process log was used to support self-reflection within a process consultation model and consultee-centered administrative consultation model. We highlight the potential for process logs to document both competency and skill development and positive consultation outcomes, as competency and skill development are inherently linked with CITs’ ability to elicit positive change. The intended audience of the article is consultation trainers and CITs so they may use process logs to improve consultation training and learning. Next, we describe process consultation and consultee-centered administrative consultation models.

Process consultation and consultee-centered models

Both process consultation (Schein, 1990) and consultee-centered administrative consultation (Brown et al., 2011) can be supported by process logs. Process consultation is a form of organizational development consultation, which focuses on improving the consultee’s professional functioning in relation to the implementation of specific programs, practices, or policies. Process consultation is explicitly nonhierarchical and collaboratively-driven. Thus, the consultee is assumed to have more knowledge than the consultant about which interventions will be effective because the consultee understands the organization and their role within it (Schein, 1990). The consultant’s role is to utilize this knowledge alongside the consultee and define the problem together. Often, the consultee may not know what the problem is, so the consultant must help define the problem by engaging in a mutual inquiry process with the consultee (Schein, 1990). Process consultation has been recognized for its utility in developing competent consultants. Yet, only 30–40% of school psychology graduate programs teach it (Anton LaHart & Rosenfield, 2004; Kaiser et al., in press).

Consultee-centered administrative consultation (CCAC) similarly emphasizes the consultee-client interaction, system functioning, and prevention (Brown et al., 2011). In consultee-centered models, broadly, the consultant uses both declarative and procedural knowledge to provide consultation (Sandoval, 2014). Declarative knowledge includes facts and theories about child development, school-based service delivery, and consultation models, such as the use of evidence-based assessments and interventions, how individual client characteristics (e.g., culture) influence school functioning, and how ecological factors impact client outcomes (e.g., the classroom environment). Procedural knowledge includes the skills and experience necessary to successfully engage in the consultation process, such as communication and listening skills, the problem-solving process, and self-reflection and self-awareness to provide culturally competent consultation services (Sandoval, 2014).

CCAC focuses on the consultee’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to improve consultee problem-solving by broadening the range of factors the administrator considers and builds their confidence to engage with new ideas or approaches (Brown et al., 2011). Additionally, the non-prescriptive approach assumes that the consultant does not have prior knowledge or opinions about the consultee’s target problem. Instead, the consultant relies on their procedural knowledge (e.g., communication skills) to co-construct shared understanding of the problem and corresponding solutions (Brown et al., 2011; Sandoval, 2014).

Process consultation and CCAC are well-suited for the use of process logs because process logs emphasize both CITs’ declarative (e.g., consultation models, research) and procedural knowledge (e.g., communication, the nature of the working relationship). Further, they can be used to document perceptual shifts in consultees’ approaches to problem-solving. Although this article focuses on how process logs can support development in learning these two consultation models, the self-reflective process required by process logs is applicable to all consultation models (Henning-Stout, 1999).

Contributions of the current article

This article addresses two gaps in the consultation training literature, particularly in the context of process consultation and consultee-centered approaches. First, there has been minimal literature describing structured supervision strategies in consultation training. We highlight the process log as one strategy or tool that might be used to support consultation training alongside an authentic case example. Second, we describe how process logs might be used to document consultee outcomes, including a perceptual shift in consultees and a reorientation toward a solution. The remainder of this article reviews the core components of the process log and then presents an empirical demonstration of how a series of process logs was used within one school psychology doctoral student’s (first author) consultation case at a high-needs district in the Midwestern United States. The case is presented to describe documentation and coding practices so consultation trainers and CITs may incorporate process logs into their training and learning efforts and develop increasingly sophisticated self-reflection skills over time.

Process logs: a structured approach for trainee self-reflection

Process logs consist of five major sections, which are summarized in Table 1. In these five sections, the CIT reflects on (a) the stage of the problem-solving process, (b) the working relationship and use of communication skills, (c) diversity, (d) the supports they need or questions they have, and (e) academic literature read to inform their conceptualization of the case. These sections are derived from a combination of consulting psychology competencies (APA, 2017), literature examining the effective components of consultation training (e.g., Barrett et al., 2017), and the most common challenges faced by CITs (e.g., Newman, 2012).

Table 1. Process log template.

Section	Description
Background Content area/consultation model/level Consultee description	The background section provides a few specific, contextualizing details for the case that help to develop the problem statement. It also identifies the content area, consultation model to be used, and at what level the consultation takes place (e.g., classroom, building, or district). Finally, the consultee is also identified.
Date	Each process log entry captures a session date.
Phase of the Problem-Solving Process	The problem-solving section names the phase of the problem-solving process and includes relevant details depending on the phase, such as developing or reconceptualization of the problem or possible intervention strategies. Fluidity between phases is assumed.
Working relationship and Communication	The relationship and communication section documents details about the dynamics of the working relationship and verbal and non-verbal communication skills used. This section details the interpersonal factors that need to be considered for intervention feasibility and ongoing development.
Diversity	The diversity section discusses differences between the CIT’s, consultee’s, and client’s identities or cultural backgrounds. It also considers cultural or contextual factors to be considered throughout the process.
Support	The support section explicitly communicates questions the CIT has to inform next steps.
Reading(s)	The readings section includes full references of the relevant literature that was most recently consulted for the next session. It also includes an explicit connection statement on how each reading relates to the case.

There is strong indication that process logs facilitate consultant development and affect client outcomes (see Table 1; Newman, 2012; Newman & Rosenfield, 2018), despite limited research on consultation training outcomes for CITs, consultees, and clients (Guiney & Zibulsky, 2017; Newman, 2012). For example, a qualitative study (ethnographic analysis) of consultation logs, with a similar format to the process logs described in this article, found that incorporating logs into consultation training resulted in the successful application of consultation procedures, greater awareness of consultant roles and knowledge, and greater attention to the consultation relationship (Henning-Stout, 1999). The logs emphasized self-reflection, which promoted the generalization of techniques learned in other clinical coursework and demonstrated CITs’ flexibility in consultation and problem-solving (Henning-Stout, 1999).

Process logs may be used to support individual and group supervision activities throughout consultation training for masters, specialist, and doctoral-level trainees in a variety of fields (e.g., school psychology, health psychology) (e.g., Henning-Stout, 1999; Powell et al., 2017). Individual supervision occurs on a one-on-one basis between a supervisor and the CIT. Group supervision formats vary between whole-group and small groups, but typically include one supervisor and two or more CITs (Newman et al., 2013). In the latter, the supervisor sits with each group and provides substantive input during case discussions. In both individual and group supervision formats, CITs submit process logs prior to supervision sessions. This encourages the CIT to engage in proactive self-reflection and allows the supervisor to proactively identify specific points of feedback for the supervision session. In group supervision, teams of 2–3 students also review each other’s password-protected and deidentified process logs to increase the amount of time spent discussing a case during the supervision session, as opposed to group members merely summarizing updates from their weekly consultation meetings. Group members might visit the Supports Needed section to provide specific feedback for other sections. Further, process logs shared during group supervision can provide a formal structure, which maximizes the effectiveness of supervision (Newman et al., 2013). For individual supervision, process logs can supplant a meeting agenda with specific and contextualized questions and discussion points for the CIT and supervisor to address. In this way, process logs might increase accountability and adherence to the supervision process (Rossen & Joyce-Beaulieu, 2015), particularly in group supervision (Newman et al., 2013). Each section of the process log is described next and should be completed after every consultation session for continuous reflection.

Stage of the problem-solving process

The first section of the process log asks CITs to identify which stage of the problem-solving process the consultation dyad is in. Importantly, in consultee-centered models, the stages include an initial contracting stage in which consultants enter the school context and build rapport with the consultee to ensure shared understanding of what the consultation process entails (Newman et al., 2014; Sandoval, 2014). Further, the stages may not be linear, which means that consultation dyads are free to return to a previous stage or move forward based on CIT and consultee needs at any given time. Identifying the problem-solving stage increases adherence to the problem-solving process and helps move the CIT through hypothesis development and intervention. This first section asks the CIT to reflect on the problem-solving stage and captures initial and ongoing information about the problem-solving process. The CIT delves into the consultee’s verbal communications (presentations; Hylander, 2012) and less salient thoughts and beliefs (representations; Hylander, 2012) about the problem. The CIT uses reframing as necessary to guide the dyad toward objectivity and eventually arrive at a shared understanding of the problem. Thus, the process log provides a chronological record of ongoing information exchange, hypothesis evolution, and data-based decisions at each step.

Working relationship and use of communication skills

The second section of the process log discusses the working relationship and communication skills. Positive working relationships are critical to the success of the consultation process. Working relationships may utilize various collaborative models and directive and nondirective strategies (Gutkin, 1999; Schulte & Osborne, 2003). Within organizations, certain types of interpersonal working relationships are more productive over other types (Schein & Schein, 2018). Namely, a working relationship in which individuals are personable and treat each other with equal dignity while upholding hierarchical professional boundaries creates the most ideal working environment (Schein & Schein, 2018). CITs should use the process log to reflect on whether such relationship characteristics are evident or not.

Self-reflection on the communication skills used by CITs is necessary, as communication skills are pivotal in establishing and maintaining positive working relationships. Ongoing self-reflection is critical so that CITs may adapt future communication to improve the relationship when needed. Communication skills include open-ended questions, clarifying questions and statements, paraphrases, perception checking, and summary statements (Ivey et al., 2015; Newman & Rosenfield, 2018). For example, the CIT might note a breakdown in the consultation relationship in their process log, which might prompt them to increase their use of open-ended questions and perception checking to provide more space for the consultee to elaborate on their understanding of the problem (Ivey et al., 2015). Further, self-reflection on the consultation relationship might also allow the supervisor and CIT to detect if the relationship is starting to become too clinical or therapeutically oriented. Thus, the CIT might employ communication strategies to redirect the consultee to focus on the client. Proactively documenting the CIT’s observations during each consultation session in the process log will more accurately capture the nature of the consultation relationship, as opposed to retroactive memory-based observations which are more prone to interference (Craig, 2022).

Diversity

The third section of the process log discusses diversity or the consideration of the identities and cultural backgrounds of consultants, consultees, clients, and organizational settings that may influence the consultation process. Identities or cultural factors include sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, age, generation) that could influence the consultative relationship, as well as intervention acceptability and feasibility. A useful lens for diversity principles is through the multicultural school consultation framework to support consultee and consultant learning and development (Ingraham, 2000). Five components within the multicultural school consultation framework promote successful consultation: (a) the CIT’s learning and development (e.g., self-awareness and identity), (b) the consultee’s learning and development (e.g., objectivity and confidence), (c) cultural variations (i.e., similarities and variations between consultant, consultee, and client), (d) contextual influences (e.g., societally induced disbalance of power), and (e) methods for supporting consultee and client success (e.g., problem framing, multicultural consultation strategies, and continued reflection) (Ingraham, 2000, 2017). Explicit consideration of these components may be included in this section of the process log to support CIT skill development. For example, the CIT might find greater feasibility and acceptability for certain interventions over others after comparing the consultee’s and client’s identities and the context in which each intervention was validated.

Supports needed or questions

The supports needed or questions section of the process log promotes critical reflection, active learning, and considerations for next steps as key components of self-regulated learning (Schunk & Ertmer, 2000). It encourages CITs to ask frank questions and articulate requests for supervisor and peer support. This section is meaningful for building self-awareness and metacognition about the consultation case. Further, this section may also help the CIT identify topics to explore in the literature. Finally, the support section of the process log can be a place for knowledge sharing and intellectual collaboration, by providing explicit talking points during supervision sessions and providing written feedback from supervisors and peers.

Academic literature to inform consultation practice

The fifth and final section of the process log discusses relevant literature. The inclusion of the academic literature section is necessary to close the research-practice gap. This section serves two purposes: (a) to promote CITs’ active interaction with the literature and (b) to translate research into their consultation practice (Lemons & Toste, 2019). CITs will likely only have had one consultation course (Anton LaHart & Rosenfield, 2004; Barrett et al., 2017; Hazel et al., 2010). Therefore, actively consulting the literature is important to move beyond theoretical training in consultation. This section thereby holds CITs accountable for actively engaging with the latest research evidence, which may include new legal and ethical developments. In this section, CITs describe the literature read and make explicit connections regarding how the literature informs their understanding of their consultation case. Finally, this section may be particularly useful to identify gaps in the literature for doctoral-level CITs with training emphases in research and research methods (Lemons & Toste, 2019).

Applied case example

The following case example illustrates how process logs were used to record, evaluate, and seek supervisory and peer feedback on a consultation case. We highlight each section within the process log that facilitated critical thinking and applied analysis of the case: (a) the stage of the problem-solving process, (b) the consultative relationship, (c) diversity, (d) support needed, and (e) research relevant to supporting the case. Each section examines the case under the microscope, then discusses how the process log supported learning and development within that stage. To embed process logs into the group supervision format used in this context, the CIT shared their password-protected process log using cloud storage (e.g., OneDrive) to be reviewed by the university supervisor prior to their supervision session.

The case presented emphasized academic content within a process consultation and consultee-centered administrative consultation model, thus consultation occurred at the organizational or systems level. The CIT was a third-year doctoral student at an APA-accredited and NASP-approved School Psychology program. The primary consultee was a veteran district leadership team member. Secondary consultees included a team of other building partners, such as administrators, case managers, special education teachers, behavior support specialists, and social workers. Consultation sessions occurred face-to-face, weekly for ten sessions, with an informal follow-up after closing the case. Table 2 presents demographic characteristics of the school district to provide context for the consultation case.

Table 2. District-level academic and socioeconomic data.

Variable	N or %
Student enrollment	9,866
Average Class Size K-3	19.9
Students Proficient in English Language Arts at the End of Third Grade	16.6%
Students Proficient in Math and English 3–8	9.9%
4-year Graduation Rate	68.2%
Free and Reduced Lunch Participation by Eligible Students	91.7%
Economically Disadvantaged Students*	89.3%
English Language Learner status	14.5%
Race/ethnicity
African American	37.9%
Asian	5.5%
Hispanic/Latino	20.7%
Two or more races	12.8%
White	22.6%

*Percentage of economically disadvantaged students was calculated by the district using data from students qualifying for free or reduced lunch programs, residing in homes receiving food or cash assistance, in foster care, Medicaid-eligible, holding migrant status, or who are homeless.

Stage of the problem-solving process

Contracting

Contracting typically includes shared understanding of the consultation process, including logistics (e.g., meeting schedules, locations, and modalities) and the purpose, goals, and assumptions of consultation (Newman et al., 2014). Expectations for the process were discussed at this stage, highlighting the importance of indirect service delivery with the consultee as the implementing agent and the CIT in a supporting role. At this point, the consultee conveyed a preference for flexible meeting times during the days on which both the CIT and consultee were on site. The CIT agreed, understanding that the high-needs district might require the consultee’s support at unpredictable moments and intervals. In addition to logistics, contracting includes rapport-building and mindfully entering a system. The CIT had a preexisting working relationship with the consultee, which developed through the context of practicum, to inform the CIT’s approach to contracting. For example, without flexibility shown to the consultee regarding the request for variable meeting times, or formalizing the nature of the working relationship, rapport likely would have been negatively impacted. In this case, the CIT realized the demands of the consultee’s role in the district early in the school year within the larger context of practicum and the challenges that came with securing initial meetings.

Problem identification and analysis

The problem identification and analysis stage lasted approximately eight sessions – notably, the longest of all stages. During these sessions, the consultee described challenges implementing a new special education management system. The school district sought to improve organizational functioning by consolidating paper records and other digital records into one comprehensive data platform. Information recorded in the problem-solving stage section of the process log included who shared ownership over the problem, the magnitude of the problem and quantitative data available (e.g., costs and budgets), how long the problem had persisted, and workarounds needed for information that would support problem-solving but that the consultant did not have access to (i.e., the limitations and bounds of the case). Initial meetings from which these data were gathered involved the consultee describing the district-wide data management and reorganization problem faced by staff at the classroom, building, and district levels. The consultation dyad collaboratively determined that the goal was to increase use of the new platform to document special education processes, and improve efficiency and communication.

In continuing to develop an understanding of the problem and goals, the problem identified was two-pronged: (a) there was a gap between the technological skills of building staff and the skills required for efficient use of the new system, and (b) there was decreased morale and hampered interpersonal relationships between staff and administration, resulting in a communication and training delivery gap to staff. Decreased morale was due to low buy-in during the adoption and implementation of the new system. Thus, the dyad believed a perceptual change among team members was needed first (Hylander, 2012) to increase the fidelity of any proposed solution. Second, given that technology challenges are prevalent across school districts (Armistead, 2014), the CIT took the lead helping school staff effectively use the software tools (Silberglitt & Hyson, 2014).

The CIT used the process logs to support consultation competency development by reflecting on current conceptualizations of the case, seeking feedback from peers and supervisors, and recording the supervision discussions. The process log also recorded the negative effects of the consultee’s initial failed solutions with staff. These attempted solutions were seemingly developed by the consultee in isolation and reliant upon expert power (Erchul et al., 2014) for their adoption and implementation by school staff, as the consultee had a dominant role within their district and was viewed as more effective or knowledgeable.

In order to make progress in the case, it was necessary to guide the consultee to define problems objectively, particularly given earlier fallouts (Hylander, 2012). It was also necessary to broaden the range of factors the consultee considered when developing solutions (Brown et al., 2011). Increased objectivity would facilitate developing solutions that would address the ultimate goal of the consultation case – to improve organizational functioning by streamlining special education recordkeeping into one comprehensive data system. However, in order for the CIT to support increased objectivity for the consultee, the CIT had to engage in objective descriptions of the problem within the process logs and during supervision. The CIT culled details from problem descriptions over several sessions to construct an objective problem statement. This problem definition allowed the CIT to support increased objectivity with the consultee and focus intervention design on objective and changeable factors within the case.

Intervention design and implementation

In discussing viable plans of action, the consultee and CIT conjointly arrived at the decision to create a new in-house process for managing special education cases. In addition, frequent communication with the district’s information technology (IT) department would be maintained throughout platform development. This decision was made based on entries in process logs detailing errors in uploaded special education forms by IT. Whereas IT could provide web support, the veteran consultee carried expert knowledge about special education processes and required documentation needed within the system, which was necessary for successful transition to the new electronic system. Finally, frequent communication would be established with relevant special education staff to better coordinate parent interviews for initial evaluations and align with district-wide processes and initiatives by the director of special education.

Intervention acceptability and feasibility

The acceptability and feasibility of the proposed solutions was documented by noting the consultee’s actions outside of consultation sessions. The actions included the consultee’s initiative to schedule a meeting with a new special education administrator to describe the problem, such as barriers preventing effective use of the new system, as well as the proposed solution. These actions, documented in the process log, signaled to the CIT that the consultee felt confident about the intervention plan and had shared ownership over the solution, which are key goals of CCAC (Brown et al., 2011).

The candid conversation that ensued in the meeting between the consultee and the new special education administrator, with the CIT present, suggested that one of the ultimate goals of consultation was underway: equipping the consultee with skills to independently problem solve and generate solutions that improve system functioning (Brown et al., 2011). As a result of the consultation process, the consultee remained willing to try new ways of facilitating the process of data transfer. Further, the consultee’s open communication regarding instances when best practices may not have been followed previously illustrated closer alignment between the consultee’s presentations (verbal communications) and representations (thoughts and beliefs) about the problem. Lastly, the CIT carefully documented when a suggestion worked or did not work, which helped the CIT modify strategies. These observations provided valuable insight into intervention acceptability and feasibility.

Consultee and intervention outcomes

The process log recorded critical data that allowed for both formative and summative assessment of the consultation process. The CIT developed and employed a qualitative and simplified coding scheme to understand the perceptual shift in the consultee from negative representations (thoughts, actions) and limited objectivity to more positive representations (thoughts, actions) and increased objectivity. The coding scheme was based on magnitude coding (Saldaña, 2013), in which the CIT assigned a direction code (positive or negative) to the qualitative process log data and then calculated the frequency of those positive and negative codes to examine the extent to which the consultation process had facilitated a perceptual shift in the consultee. Comments and behaviors were coded as negative when the consultee demonstrated lack in objectivity (Ingraham, 2000), such as when there was high emotional valence tied to a comment, or when the consultee fixated on a problem (e.g., a technical glitch or limited training from the district). Positive comments and behaviors were ones in which the consultee engaged in change talk, communicated motivation to pursue a solution, or offered support to others having trouble with the new system. Elements of the process log (e.g., problem identification, consultative relationship, and research) provided significant context for the CIT to revisit when deciding how to code particular comments and actions. After the coding scheme was developed, the CIT reviewed and coded their process logs from all 10 weeks of the consultation case. This type of reflective evaluation is critical to developing competencies related to the effectiveness of the problem solving process employed within consultation.

Table 3 presents examples of positive and negative codes from process logs for each consultation session. Figure 1 illustrates the changes in positive and negative coding over the course of the consultative relationship. The increase in positive coding and decrease in negative coding suggested a perceptual shift in the consultee. Further, the consultee thanked the CIT multiple times across sessions, acknowledging helpfulness of the change process.

Figure 1. This figure illustrates the frequency of positive and negative instances documented across sessions.

Table 3. Examples of positive and negative codes from process log excerpts.

Examples of Positive Codes
Session 6	Consultee explored new program and objectively communicated errors to district IT department.
Session 7	Consultee was proactive in learning system and successfully discovered how to e-mail updated documents (e.g., signed REED) to team members using new program. Consultee explored the communication feature after consultant shared about it in the previous week. Consultee then showed supervisor how to use feature.
Session 8	Consultee discussed additional features of new system, such as case management feature to add MET members. This change in agency was different from the beginning of the semester.
	TOTAL: 16 (over 10 weeks)
Examples of Negative Codes
Session 1	Case manager complained to administrator about data entry process and using new system.
Session 3	Consultee mentioned frustration with this dynamic problem and with the shift from a seamless process for most of their time in the district (2+ decades) to the current problem.
Session 5	Discontent expressed by case managers and consultee at news of district administration temporarily hiring external consultants to help sort data backlog (after staff had used their time toward the project).
	TOTAL: 7 (over 10 weeks)

In addition to a perceptual shift, the consultation process resulted in improved knowledge and skills in the consultee, which the consultee was then able to pass along to other team members. For example, in a later meeting with a special education case manager who had left upset after the first meeting with the consultee, the consultee calmly and knowledgeably walked the case manager through accurate updating of student data. In other words, the consultee demonstrated improved understanding of the system. Further, the consultee wanted to send a token of gratitude to the IT department, which was taken as a positive conclusion to the case, as this was initially a troubled working relationship. Finally, indicative of further success, the consultee opted to take on additional cases at other buildings in the district, suggesting they felt adequately prepared to share their newfound knowledge.

For outcomes related to organizational functioning, a separate measure was used to determine if problem-solving and intervention strategies dealing with the technology-related problem were working. The CIT used the process log to keep a summarized version of this data as an additional outcomes measure. A weekly pending case list was generated in the new system to check if completed evaluations were eliminated, implying that student data were entered and updated in the system, and the process had been followed correctly. This was quantified by a reduction in the number of student cases appearing as overdue in the system-generated caseload spreadsheet. Over the course of the consultation case, there was a 95.38% reduction in the number of student profiles that were outdated.

Consultative relationship and communication skills

The process log explicitly included a section on one of the most significant predictors of consultation success: the relationship between the CIT and consultee. Explicit inclusion of such a section allowed for reflection on specific documented feedback by supervisors pertaining to interpersonal characteristics of the consultative relationship. This practice supports high quality training and improves accountability on both the CIT and supervisor’s parts (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). Revisiting this process log section also served as a frequent reminder that the nature of the collaborative relationship can be dynamic (Schein & Schein, 2018), such as if professional boundaries need to be redrawn to remain goal-oriented and productive.

The consultative relationship in this case study was consistently professional and friendly throughout the consultation project. The first couple of sessions began with establishing intent to help, which is an imperative aspect of process consultation (Schein, 1990). The CIT used communication skills that contribute to a positive working relationship such as asking honest open-ended questions, perception checking, and summary statements (Newman & Rosenfield, 2018). Once a better understanding of the consultees’ professional support system and the site’s culture and climate was gained, the CIT reflected on the type of working relationship that would be most productive for the situation. The CIT also made sure to convey a sense of shared problem ownership with the consultee (Newman, Guiney, et al., 2015).

The working relationship between the consultee and CIT was personable, in which individuals at different hierarchical levels treat each other with dignity and are not distant from each other, which is indicated as most appropriate and conducive to a positive and productive work environment (i.e., Level 2; Schein & Schein, 2018). For context, the relationship between the consultee and other staff, most of whom had worked together for 20 years, was intimate with fewer boundaries in self-disclosure and sharing of personal matters (i.e., Level 3; Schein & Schein, 2018). This determination was based on frequent observations of discussions at work regarding family life, such as regular disclosures about partners and children, and staff providing each other space, as close friends or family might, when a staff member shared annoyances about systems and processes. However, given the CIT’s position as an external consultant, the CIT opted to maintain a professional but cordial working relationship to align with the work culture as best as possible.

Diversity

The process log fostered self-awareness by providing a structure to reflect on how differences in the CIT and consultee’s identities – in this case, age, generation, and professional experience – influenced the consultation process. A critical reflection was that veteran consultees are sometimes difficult to convince to modify or try new strategies (Ingraham, 2017). However, the working relationship and use of communication skills facilitated the veteran consultee’s agreement with the CIT’s suggestions. The consultee became open to change and recognized that having worked remotely for some time due to COVID-19 and virtual school, returning to in-person learning with the introduction of a new online data management system perhaps warranted the implementation of a new process.

Another diversity consideration occurred during an IEP meeting in which an experienced special education case manager struggled with Zoom audio technology and at their request, the CIT provided assistance. This scenario provided a snapshot into the limited technological skills of staff at the building, which was a barrier to solving the problem at hand. However, it was important for the CIT to wait to be invited to provide assistance to the veteran case manager. Without waiting to be invited to help, the problem could have worsened, considering the preexisting frustration with technology use and expert-driven approaches. Furthermore, it was important for the CIT to build trust with the consultee because without buy-in and sustained momentum on the major data transfer project, the implementation process may have been affected (McNamara, 2014).

Supports needed

The supports needed section of the process log listed specific questions the CIT developed while writing each process log entry and considering next steps within their particular stage of problem-solving. While the questions were usually specific, they varied between being broad and narrow in scope. For example, in one entry, the CIT asked, “What is a fitting framework of consultation to write about for this case?” to which the faculty supervisor and peers responded either in written format as a comment with reading recommendations, or through rich discussion about whether one or another framework better fit case details. In other entries for this section, the CIT summoned the developing knowledge base of peers to recall relevant special education laws. Explicit statements about the guidance sought for next steps in the supports needed section facilitated solution-oriented group consultation. Entries in this section also supported metacognitive awareness and self-regulated learning (Schunk & Ertmer, 2000) as goals of using the process log to develop competence as a consultant.

Readings and research

The readings and research section of the process log ensured regular and frequent engagement with the literature. This supported ongoing hypothesis development in consultation, where intrapersonal ideas and interpersonal exchanges can quickly give rise to assumptions and ineffective solutions. These exchanges run the potential of high emotional valence, which can introduce subjectivity over objectivity in the case. Remaining tethered to the literature supported objectivity. For example, the CIT read and reflected specifically on the value of social capital discussed by Neal et al. (2020) to support this case, in which expectations about the project and prior failed solutions required a delicate approach to the interpersonal dynamics. From the administration’s perspective, there was a risk to losing social bonding capital (internal), which is associated with acceptability of an intervention (Neal et al., 2020). Social bridging capital (external), which is associated with understanding of an intervention, was initially less salient in this case. However, since this was a high needs district, the value of social bridging capital and the CIT as an external specialist was advantageous. Therefore, upon consulting relevant literature, the CIT realigned their role to serve in the bridging capacity while minimizing threat to internal social bonding capital and intervention acceptability (Neal et al., 2020).

Conclusion

In consultation training, critical case analysis is not a standardized process, particularly at the organizational level. However, process logs can facilitate CIT self-reflection and skill development within a structured supervision process. Process logs can also address the research-practice gap by directly requiring and recording connections to relevant literature and interpretation within the parameters of case questions and context, with weekly follow-up. Although much more work is needed in this area, this article provided one example of how process logs can be used to support graduate school psychology training in consultation and document consultee- and systems-level outcomes.

Ethics approval

This study was determined to be non-human subjects research by the Michigan State University Human Research Protection Program, Office of Regulatory Affairs.

Consent to participate

Informed consent was not needed because there were no human subjects in the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Amna A. Agha

Amna A. Agha is a Ph.D. Candidate in School Psychology at Michigan State University.

Courtenay A. Barrett

Courtenay A. Barrett, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor in the School Psychology program at Michigan State University, a licensed psychologist in Michigan, and a Nationally Certified School Psychologist. Recent work has examined the factors that influence the adoption, implementation, and evaluation of evidence-based programs and practices in schools.