Introduction

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Notes

  1. For more details, see David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (New York: Avon Books, 1989); and on replacing the Islamic Empire in Turkey by a secular order, see Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1979).

  2. Robert Jackson, Quasi States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

  3. Bassam Tibi, “The Simultaneity of the Unsimultaneous: Tribes and Imposed Nation States” in Philip Khoury and Joseph Kostiner (eds.), Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 127–52.

  4. Hedley Bull, “The Revolt against the West” in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson (eds.), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 217–28; p. 223.

  5. Hedley Bull, “The Revolt against the West” in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson (eds.), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 217–28; p. 223.

  6. Hedley Bull, “The Revolt against the West” in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson (eds.), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 217–28; p. 223.

  7. On these repercussions, see Adeed Dawisha, Arab Nationalism in the 20th Century (Princeton/NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), chapter 10 on “1967 and After,” pp. 252–81, and Bassam Tibi, Conflict and War in the Middle East (New York: St Martin's Press, 1997), new edition, chapters 3 and 4 on the 1967-War.

  8. See the classic by Richard Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969). In a letter to the editor of the Washington Post with the title “Misjudging the Muslim Brotherhood,” John Esposito and John Voll wrongly defend this movement against the accusation of being the source of all religious extremism in the Middle East. In fact, almost all Jihadist irregular war groups are off-springs of the Muslim Brotherhood.

  9. The major work with this call is Yusuf al-Qaradawi, al-Hulul al-Mustawrada wa kaif janat ala ummatuna (The Imported Solutions and How they Damaged our Umma), Vol. 1 of 3 volumes, published in Cairo and Beirut in the 1970s under the title: al-Hall al-Islami (Beirut: Mu'assat al-Risalah, 1970–80).

 10. The major works of Sayyid Qutb are: al-Salam al-Alami wa al-Islam (World Peace and Islam), (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, new printing 1992, legal edition), p. 169 and also Sayyid Qutb, Ma'alim fi al-Tariq (Signposts along the Road), (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1989), 13th legal edition.

 11. On the ideas and impact of Qutb see Mohammed Dharif, al-Islam al-Siyasi fi al-watan al-Arabi (Political Islam in the Arab World) (Casablanca: al-Ma'arif, 1992), pp. 102–10. Unlike many Western books on political Islam, this one is based on Arabic sources and not on Western press coverage and on preconceptions.

 12. See Hasan al-Banna, Risalat al-Jihad (Essay on Jihad), reprinted in his selected writings Majmu'at Ras'il al-Imam al-Shadid Hasan al-Banna (Collected Essays) (Cairo: Dar al-Da'wa, 1990), pp. 271–92. For an English translation of al-Banna's writings see Charles Wendell (ed.), Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).

 13. For more details see Bassam Tibi, “War and Peace in Islam” in Terry Nardin (ed.), The Ethics of War and Peace (Princeton/NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 128–45.

 14. See the book by Rifa'at al-Sa'id on Hasan al-Banna, published under the title: Mata? Kaif? Limatha? (When? How and Why?) (Cairo: Madbuli, 1977). After the assassination of al-Banna in 1949, the ideas of Qutb became the major source of the Brotherhood.

 15. Kalevi Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chapter 2.

 16. On the new Medievalism see Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 254–55, and on the concept of disorder Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism. Political Islam and the New World Disorder (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

 17. Georges Sorel, Réflexions sur la violence (Paris: Éditon du Trident, 1987, reprint); English translation edited by Jeremy Jennings, Reflections on Violence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

 18. See chapters 11 and 12 in Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979, new edition) and on the application of this approach to Jihadist Islamism see Bassam Tibi, Der neue Totalitarismus. Heiliger Krieg und westliche Sicherheit (Darmstadt: Primus Verlag, 2004).

 19. Daniel Philpott, “The Challenge of September 11 to Secularism in International Relations” in World Politics, Vol. 55, No. 1 (October 2002), pp. 66–95.

 20. See the papers presented at the Islamic State University of Jakarta, Kalina Helmantia (et al.), Dialogue in the World of Disorder. A Response to the Threat of Unilateralism and World Terrorism (Jakarta: Hidayatullah Islamic University, 2004) See herein my chapter on democracy in Islam.

 21. The article by Leonard Binder on the subsystem theory as applied to the Middle East was first published in World Politics, Vol. 10 (1958) and then in his book, The Ideological Revolution in the Middle East (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1964). This contribution is only among very few – hitherto failed – efforts to introduce the study of Islam and the Middle East to the IR-theory.

 22. Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For a historical overview see Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society (London: Routledge, 1992) on Islam as an international system, chapter 11.

 23. On the European expansion, see Philip D. Curtin, The World and the West. The European Challenge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

 24. See the selected writings of al-Afghani, translated and edited by Nikki Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism. Political and Religious Writings of al-Afghani (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), and also the monograph by Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism. The Doctrine of Jihad and Modern History (The Hague: Mouton, 1979).

 25. Anthony Arnold, The Fateful Pebble. Afghanistan's Role in the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Novato/CA: Presidio, 1993), p. ix.

 26. See Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism. Political Islam and the New World Disorder, chapters 1 and 5.

 27. Maxime Rodinson, Mahomet (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1975).

 28. Bassam Tibi, “Culture and Knowledge: The Politics of the Islamization of Knowledge. The Fundamentalist Claim to De-Westernization” in Theory, Culture, Society, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1995), pp. 1–24 and Roxanne L. Euben, Enemy in the Mirror. Islamic Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism. A Work of Comparative Political Theory (Princeton/NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 164–67 and on Qutb, chapter 3.

 29. See Graham Fuller, The Center of the Universe. The Geopolitics of Iran (Boulder/Col.: Westview Press, 1991).

 30. On post-Saddam Iraq see, Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield, The Future of Iraq: Dictatorship, Democracy or Division? (New York: Palgrave, 2004).

 31. Bassam Tibi, “Secularization and De-Secularization in Islam” in Religion-Staat-Gesellschaft, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2000), pp. 95–117.

 32. On this Wahhabi impact see Stephen Schwartz, The Two Faces of Islam. The House of Sa'ud from Tradition to Terror (New York: Doubleday, 2002), in particular chapter 8 on the Wahhabi International. In contrast, N. DeLong, Wahhabi Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) dissociates Wahhabism from Bin Laden, which is wrong.

 33. Beverley Milton-Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine (London: Tauris, 1996).

 34. Stanley Hoffmann's article, “An American Social Science. International Relations,” is included in his collection of essays: Janus and Minerva. Essays in the Theory and Practice of International Politics (Boulder/Col: Westview Press, 1987).

 35. See Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington (eds.), Culture Matters (New York: Basic Books, 2000). This project has been continued and a multi-volume publication is underway, to be published by Routledge.

 36. Philpott, “The Challenge of September 11 to Secularism in International Relations,” p. 67.

 37. See the early prediction in Daniel Bell's essay “The Return of the Sacred? The Arguments on the Future of Religion,” published in his collected essays: The Winding Passage. Essays and Sociological Journey 1960–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 324–54, and two decades later the special issue of the IR Journal Millennium: “Religion and International Relations” (2000), see herein Bassam Tibi: “Post-bipolar Order in Crisis: The Challenge of Political Islam,” pp. 843–59.

 38. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics, pp. 13–14.

 39. Carrie Rosefsky-Wickham, Mobilizing Islam. Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).

 40. See Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity. Twelve Lectures (Cambridge/MA: MIT Press, 1987), first essay pp. 1–22, quote p. 1.

 41. See the most influential expression of this theory in the work of David E. Apter, The Politics of Modernization (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1965).

 42. See Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave. Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) and Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Macmillan, 1992).

 43. For a strong disagreement with Gilles Kepel, Jihad, Expansion et le Déclin de l'Islamisme (Paris: Gallimard, 2000); see the introduction to the updated 2002 edition of Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism. Political Islam and the New World Disorder.

 44. On the views of Jürgen Habermas concerning an alleged “post-secular society” see Bassam Tibi, “Habermas and the Return of the Sacred. “Is it a Religious Renaissance or a new Totalitarianism?” in Religion, Staat, Gesellschaft, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2002), pp. 265–96.

 45. See Bassam Tibi, “The Open Society and its Enemies Within” in Wall Street Journal Europe, March 17, 2004, p. 10.

 46. Hedley Bull, “The Revolt against the West.”

 47. See Fred Halliday, Nation and Religion in the Middle East (London: Saqi Books, 2000).

 48. See Robert Spencer, Onward Muslim Soldiers. How Jihad still Threatens America and the West (Washington/DC: Regnery Publishing, 2003).

 49. Sayyid Qutb, World Peace and Islam, p. 169.

 50. Sayyid Qutb, World Peace and Islam, p. 171.

 51. Sayyid Qutb, World Peace and Islam, pp. 172–73.

 52. See Bassam Tibi, “Education and Democratization in an Age of Islamism” in Alan Olson (et al.), Educating for Democracy (Lanham. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), pp. 203–19.

 53. Hedley Bull, “The Revolt against the West.”

 54. See on this issue Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

 55. Philip D. Curtin, The World and the West. The European Challenge and the Overseas Response (See note 23).

 56. Albert Hourani, Arab Thought in the Liberal Age. 1798–1939 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962).

 57. Abdullahi An-Na'im, Toward an Islamic Reformation. Civil Liberties, Human Rights and International Law (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990).

 58. Turkey and Indonesia are the only two among the 57 Islamic members of OIC where critical books on Islam can be published.

 59. See the proceedings published by the Center for Languages and Cultures/UIN/The Hidayatullah Islamic State University of Jakarta (ed.), Islam and the West. Dialogue of Civilizations in Search of a Peaceful Global Order (Jakarta: UIN, Islamic State University and Adenauer Foundation, 2003) which includes my presentations.

 60. Herbert A. Davidson, Alfarabi, Avicenna and Averroes on Intellect. Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Mind, and Theories of Human Intellect (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), chapter 6 on Averroës.

 61. Robert Hefner, Civil Islam. Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia (Princeton/ NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

 62. See the interesting book by Fred Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations (New York: Palgrave, 2002) and Bassam Tibi, “Intercultural Morality and Cross-Cultural Bridging” in the book of the German President Roman Herzog, Henrik Schmiegelow (ed.), Preventing the Clash of Civilizations (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 107–26.

 63. On “Euro-Islam” see the contribution in Al Sayyad, Castells (eds.) referenced in note 72 below and with reference to Turkey see my article “Euro-Islam” in Turkish Policy Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1 (2004), pp. 13–28.

 64. See the introduction by Hobsbawm to Terence Ranger and Eric Hobsbawm (eds.) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), reprint, pp. 1–14.

 65. On the concept of cultural fragmentation see Bassam Tibi, Islam between Culture and Politics (London and New York: Palgrave Press, 2001), chapter 4.

 66. Raymond Aron, Paix et Guerre entre les Nations (Paris: Calman-Lévy, 1962).

 67. Robert Spencer, Onward Muslim Soldiers: How Jihad still Threatens America and the West (Washington/DC 2003), p. xiii.

 68. Among the few books that meet professional IR standards on this subject one finds: Rouhollah K. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran. Challenge and Response in the Middle East (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).

 69. On Islamic internationalism as its Sunni variety of al-Qaeda see Peter Berger, Holy War Inc. Inside the Secret World of al-Qaida (New York: Free Press, 2001).

 70. On Shi'i internationalism see Edgar O'Balance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism. The Iranian Connection (New York: New York University Press, 1997).

 71. Pointing at the place of civilizations in world history is not an accomplishment of Huntington, given the seminal work of the historian Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, Vols. 1–12 (London: Oxford University Press, 1951–61). Toynbee acknowledges the inspiration by Ibn Khaldun's philosophy of civilization as a source for his thinking. See also Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations (London: Allen Lane, 1994).

 72. On the impact of Islamic migration see Nezar AlSayyad and Manuel Castells (eds.), Muslim Europe or Euro-Islam? (New York and Berkeley: Lexington Books, 2002) herein Bassam Tibi “Muslim Migrants in Europe: Between Euro-Islam and Ghettoization,” pp. 31–52.

 73. John Kelsay, Islam and War. A Study in Comparative Ethics (Louisville/KY: John Knox Press, 1993), p. 118.

 74. Myron Weiner, The Global Migration Crisis. Challenge to States and to Human Rights (New York: Harper Collins, 1995), chapter 6.

 75. See Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al-Qaida. A Global Network of Terror. On the West-European Cells (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).

 76. Bassam Tibi, Islamische Zuwanderung. Die gescheiterte Integration (Munich: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, 2002).

 77. On the Hellenization of Islam see William M. Watt, Islamic Philosophy and Theology (Edinburgh: University Press, 1997, 2nd Edition), see also Herbert A. Davidson, Alfarabi, Avicenna and Averroes on Intellect. Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Mind, and Theories of Human Intellect (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), chapter 6 on Averroës.

 78. Leslie Lipson, The Ethical Crises of Civilizations. Moral Meltdown or Advance? (London: Sage, 1993), pp. 62–63.

 79. Leslie Lipson, The Ethical Crises of Civilizations. Moral Meltdown or Advance? (London: Sage, 1993), pp. 62–63.

 80. On Hedley Bull, see the chapter by Stanley Hoffmann in his World Disorders (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998), pp. 13–34.

 81. Mohammed Abed al-Jabri, Arab Islamic Philosophy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999), pp. 120–30.

 82. More on this concept, Robert Wuthnow, Meaning and Moral Order. Explorations in Cultural Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), chapter 8.

 83. For more information on Wahhabi Internationalism see Schwartz, “The Two Faces of Islam” (See note 32).

 84. Franz Rosenthal, The Classical Heritage in Islam (London: Routledge, 1975). See the book by the contemporary Morroccan Muslim rationalist Mohammed Abed al-Jabri on Averroës: Arab Islamic Philosophy, p. 120 forward.

 85. Kelsay, Islam and War, p. 117.

 86. See Bat Ye'or, Islam and Dhimmitude (Cranbury/N.J. Associated University Presses, 2002).

 87. On this, see the classic by Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1998), new edition.

 88. On political Islam in Turkey see Marvine Howe, Turkey Today. A Nation Divided over Islam's Revival (Boulder/Col: Westview, 2000), chapter 15; Heinz Kramer, A Changing Turkey (Washington/DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000).

 89. Hasan al-Sharqawi, al-Muslimun, Ulama wa Hukama (Muslims as Ulema and Wise Men) (Cairo: Mu'ssasat Mukhtar, 1987), p. 12.

 90. Kelsay, Islam and War, p. 25.

 91. See Juergensmeyer (note 54).

 92. See the parts on “Remaking Politics” and “Remaking the World,” in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (eds.), Fundamentalisms and the State. Remaking Polities, Economies and Militance (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), Part 1 and Part 3.

 93. See the excellent translation of al-Madina al-Fadila by Michael Walzer (ed.), Al-Farabi on the Perfect State. Abu Nasr al-Farabi: Mabadi ara' ahl al-madina al-fadila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).

 94. The case of the “genocide” (Colin Powell) in the Sudan/Darfur in 2004 has a background. See Martin W. Daly and Ahmad A. Sikainga (eds.), Civil War in the Sudan (London: British Academic Press, 1993).

 95. See Muhammed Shahrur, al-Dawla wa al-mujtama' (State and Society) (Damascus: al-Ahali, 1994), p. 16.

 96. See the report by Neil MacFarquhar, “Muslims are Taking Hard Look at Islam,” International Herald Tribune (December 10, 2004), Frontpage, continued on p. 6.

 97. This term was coined by Mohammed Abed al-Jabri, Takwin al-aql al-Arabi (The Formation of the Arab Mind) (Beirut: al-Talia, 1984); it is a mind based on scripturalism. See on this Abdulhadi Abdulrahman, Sultat al-nas (The Authority of the Text) (Beirut: al-Markaz al-Thaqafi, 1993).

 98. See Richard Khouri, Freedom, Modernity and Islam (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1998).

 99. On this double-track oriented task see Bassam Tibi, “Between Islam and Islamism: A Dialogue with Islam and a Security Approach vis-à-vis Islamism” in Tami A. Jacoby and Brent E. Sasley (eds.), Redefining Security in the Middle East (Manchester: Manchester University Pres, 2002), pp. 62–82 (also see note 59).

100. Kalina Helmantia (et al.), Dialogue in the World of Disorder. A Response to the Threat of Unilateralism and World Terrorism.

101. Fred Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations; Bassam Tibi, “Intercultural Morality and Cross-Cultural Bridging.”