Metamorphosing sprawl to walkable city: a study on the role of public transport – Muscat case study

ABSTRACT

The tolerance of urban sprawl has allowed private cars to become the dominant mode of transport in Muscat. Consequently, the associated sedentary lifestyle led to many health and social problems. Moreover, the rapid population growth started causing some sustainability challenges like high energy consumption and air pollution. Recently, public transit rather than the private vehicles started to gain popularity within academics. In Muscat, the urban sprawl was tolerated in its development schemes starting in the 1970s. However, the aforementioned issues caused the state to adopt new policies to mitigate those consequences. Accordingly, the National Transport Company (MWASALAT) was given the task of providing public transport service in 2014 in Muscat. However, many challenges remain given that only 0.5% of Muscat’s population are using its bus service. The main hypothesis of this research is that promoting public transit in cities with large urban sprawl must be within a comprehensive scheme to transform it into a walkable city utilizing other urban & landscape planning elements. Due to a complete lack of relevant studies, the main source of information was via interviews with two high ranking officials in MWASALAT, a survey given to a random sample of Muscat residents, and data analysis. In addition, drawing an interpretation from relevant references was also employed. The research provides some approaches to achieve the desired changes for one of the best examples of urban sprawl cities in Muscat; Madinat el Sultan Qaboos.

KEYWORDS:

• Transport
• walkable
• sprawl
• MWASALAT
• sustainability
• Public Transit

Introduction

The Sultanate of Oman started its renaissance in 1970, relying on the large quantities of oil discovered around the same year [1]. Given that Oman has a large area of 309,500 sq.km [2] and a low population density of 6/km² [3], the state adopted regulations that limited residential homes to a height of three floors and commercial buildings to ten floors [4]. Consequently, urban sprawl and private car usage became the dominant lifestyle [5]. However, the current drop in oil prices during the last decade started to affect the country’s economic stability and caused the state to revise its policies [6]. In addition, the explosion of Muscat’s population from 120,000 in 1980 to 1,062,000 in 2014 [7] resulted in growing traffic congestion, air and sound pollution, and excess carbon emissions. This led Oman to take some measures to fulfill its international commitment to lower carbon emissions as per the Paris Agreement [8].

Consequently, the Oman National Transport Company was commissioned in 2014 to provide a public transit service initially in Muscat, then expanding to two other cities later; Salalah and Sohar in 2018. Within continuous efforts to maintain international standards, the company re-branded itself as MWASALAT in 2015 with a mission to be a world-class transit operator [9]. In addition, during the same year, MWASALAT signed a contract with Grupo Ruiz – a Spanish operator to initiate a strategy for providing integrated and efficient bus services [10]. Those steps were internationally recognized and MWASALAT won many awards globally and regionally like the IRU Bus Excellence Award-AC Mercedes buses and coaches in 2017, an International award for the Excellence in Marketing of the Strategic Plan presented by the International Road Transport Federation in 2019 and Excellence in nationalization and succession planning at GCC level [9].

However, the public participation in the transit system is still below expectations. According to 2022 statistics, the population of Muscat is 1,650,000 [11] while the daily average passengers of the public transport in the same year according to the yearly report of MWASALAT is 8,467 [12] with a ridership rate of just 0.5%.

Since low population density limits the effectiveness of the entire public transit system as noted by several experts [13]; this paper aims to provide a proposal to transform the existing urban sprawl cities into walkable ones utilizing urban planning, street landscaping, and green technology and other techniques to increase the public transit efficiency and attractiveness to create more sustainable and healthy communities.

To understand the main challenges that affect the effectiveness of public transit in Muscat and evaluate its services, a questionnaire prepared based on the evaluation criteria set by the PVPC – Pioneer Valley Planning Commission – called the TEC scoring system. This system is employed by the PVPC to analyze the regional influence of Federal Aid qualified transportation reform projects. Only the criteria that were relevant to the objectives of this research were utilized; Livability, Mobility, Safety, Security, Environment and Climate Change, and Quality of Life [14]. In addition, suggested solutions were also included in the questionnaire to get the participants’ feedback on their effectiveness. The questionnaire was distributed by the author to students in the Scientific College of Design and their family members who are all residents of Muscat by the author to obtain a set of different participants of all sexes, age groups, professions, and a variety of locations in Muscat. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Software were used to summarize and analyze the results, which showed tremendous issues with accessibility, mobility, environmental concerns, and even awareness about MWASALAT services. In addition, positive feedback was given to the suggested solutions. Moreover, an interview was conducted with Eng. Mohammed Al Ghafri, Acting Chair Operation Office, MWASALAT on 15 June 2021, to get more information about MWASALAT services, plans and achievements. A copy of the last annual report and maps were handed over to the author [9]. Another interview was conducted with Mr. Ahmed Nasser Matter Al Azizi, Bus Networks Planning Manager – MWASALAT, by the author on 17 October 2023, to get the recent annual report and statistics on MWASALAT services & achievements [12].

Based on reviewing the relevant literature, a proposal was suggested to transform the current urban sprawl of the majority of Omani cities into walkable compact cities utilizing landscape, planning tools, electric cars, and initiatives to make public transit more accessible. The suggested proposal was applied to Madinat el Sultan Qaboos as one of the most affluent cities in Muscat, which was established during the urban sprawl of the 1980s [15]. The mentioned city was selected as it was built during the peak of the urban sprawl phase of the city’s growth, it is already a fully developed area, and it bears the name of the previous sultan who founded the modern Omani state. The proposal suggests to divide the city into compact neighborhoods with a walking distance 5–10 minutes for their livable centers with suggested mixed-use buildings that accommodate daily needs for residents. Accordingly, the neighborhood will be more pedestrian oriented, adding chances for walking and encouraging active transit modes. Then, these multi centers could be connected via electric vehicles to the city center that is linked to the bus city route via a new extension. Subsequently, the current linear city bus route will become an efficient grid-like network that is more accessible, sustainable, and constitutes a real backbone for a healthy city.

As a quick survey of relevant literatures, Peter Hall and Mark Tewdwar-Jones discussed in 1975 [16] the history of the development of public transport which resulted in adopting the sprawl type of city growth and discarding the compact type that was defined by walking distance. The same issue was discussed by Steven Bencher in 2023 [17]. Also, the negative outcomes of adopting car-oriented cities on human health and the environment were outlined by Jeff Speck in 2013 [18] as well as Robert Cervero, Erich Guerra and Stefan Al in 2017 [19]. In addition, the sustainability of public transport was discussed by several scholars; John Grin in 2011 [20], and Thomas Abdallah in 2017 [21]. Moreover, from a health, environmental and social perspective, walkability’s importance as a shared feature to public transit was highlighted by some authors; Jane Gehl in 2010 [22], and Jeff Speck in 2013. [18] Furthermore, the urban planning role in supporting public transport and walkability was discussed by Russ HT in 2009 [23], and Charles Montgomery in 2014 [24].

This paper starts with an overview of the development of urban sprawl and its relationship with transition mode. In addition, the adoption of car transit associated with urban sprawl and its impact on the environment, public health, and life quality is discussed with emphasis on the role public transit plays in providing a healthy sustainable living environment. Next, the challenges facing public transport in Muscat are listed through interviewing two high-ranking officials in the Oman National Transport Company, besides a survey conducted among the students at the Scientific College of Design and their family members to secure a random sample of age group, sex and geographic location within the city. Consequently, a primary proposal for transforming the urban sprawl city to a walkable one with efficient, accessible and sustainable public transport was suggested and implemented in a case study. This proposal is based on a comprehensive scheme of urban planning, street landscaping and some techniques to increase the competitiveness and appeal of public transit.

The development of urban sprawl and its impact on transtion mode and life quality

The growth of traditional settlements was restricted by walking distance from its center, which shaped urban environmental, economic, social, and cultural factors through centuries of accumulated experience until the nineteenth century [5,16]. With the invention of the automobile, the cities started to expand tremendously, driving massive changes in the environment, economy & people’s health [13]. Throughout the following section, the shifting type of city development, its relationship with transit mode and reflections on quality of life will be discussed.

Shifting to urban sprawl-beginning and reasons

The economist, Colin Clark conducted an investigation about city development worldwide, which revealed that; until the 1800s cities spread within a radius of around 5 kilometers from its center as a walking distance between residence and work. Then by the end of the 19th century, some cities around the world obtained some kind of cheap and effective public transit system (horse tram, bus, steam trains, etc.) Consequently, the radius of the city had increased to be 24 km. Later, motor buses and electric trams caused suburban sprawl up to five times the previous size. Those changes affected the accessibility pattern within the urban zone. The city sprawl continued further despite the fact that most of the work opportunities, services and shops remained mostly in the city center. Thus, traffic congestion in urban areas was rising, and daily commuting to work became increasingly longer. It was argued that this situation imposed an unbearable load on a city’s inhabitants [16].

Urban sprawl consequences

Recent studies have revealed the far-reaching consequences of shifting away from compact human scale cities to an urban sprawl car-centric city. The most significant changes negatively affected two areas; sustainability and public health [25].

Sustainability and city spread type

In 1987 with the release of ‘Our Common Future’ report prepared by the BrundtLand Commission; people started to realize that human activities have a profound impact on the environment. Sustainability was defined as ‘meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. [8] Among the ten goals of sustainability, the three ones linked directly to sustainable city planning are environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability [13].

At the environmental level, one of the major current challenges for worldwide cities is upgrading the quality of life for people by minimizing pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Some researchers identified the transit sector as the prime contributor to the CO₂ release in cities. The current prevailing model of sprawled cities negatively affected city planning and forced people to be reliant on cars. Urban planners overwhelmingly preferred public transit than private transit, due to its massive capacity, smaller area needed, lower fuel consumption and lower cost. In addition, there’s less maintenance required per person compared to private car ownership. All those factors indicate that public transit addresses the need for economic sustainability [13].

Dr. Chinmoy Sarkar, a prolific author and researcher, demanded the governments to create more walkable and activity friendly environment, since the world currently spends billions of dollars for treating cardiovascular and other diseases associated with our current sedentary urban lifestyle [26].

Regarding social sustainability, the psychologists emphasized the benefits of social contact and travel for human beings. Nelson Curl et al. wrote that city accessibility planning is relevant to social inclusion/exclusion and quality of life. In addition, social justice issues of providing equal chances for people to access their families, city services and other facilities must be taken into consideration. Moreover, a study that examined the link between the social and physical environments of a variety of neighborhoods in Japan revealed that the frequency of conversations and greetings with neighbors is positively correlated to public transport access which is associated with social activities like walking to the bus stops [13].

Health perspective of public transit

The Institute of Transportation and Development Policy published a report which recognized that making cities more walkable is essential for better public health. The report concluded that the current low walkability is correlated with the dominant type of urban sprawl [27]. A significant number of studies identify the inactive life style as a big threat to public health. The increased health risks include hypertension, obesity, respiratory concerns, and mental health issues. The specific causes are different but include traffic noise, decreased air quality and sedentary lifestyle [26]. In addition, the International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health published a research paper linking hypertension to several cardiovascular diseases and other chronic ones. The research proved the necessity for a public health intervention in urban planning and design. Recently, the World Health Organization prescribed a recommendation for physical activities (PA) to keep a healthy and active lifestyle [27]. Hence, a variety of studies have revealed that public transit users spend more time walking to access public stops, which raised their PA. In addition, another research emphasized that access to bus stops is a key factor in individuals choosing walking as a transit mode [28].

Public transport challenges in Muscat

Oman has a surface area of 309,500 km² [2] and a low population density of 6/km² [3] compared to neighboring United Arab Emirates; 83600 km² [2] with a density of 139/km² [3]. The large oil reserves discovered in Oman around 1970 combined with the low population density enabled the state to adopt the low-rise style of building. According to the Muscat Municipality, the single family residential building height was restricted to three floors and mixed-use buildings to ten floors [4]. This created the conditions for urban sprawl, and the complete absence of public transport till 2014 made private cars the only viable mode of transit [9]. It is a well-known fact that reducing population density limits the viability and usability of the whole concept of public transit [13].

Recent public transport availability in Oman

The current decline in oil prices during the last decade prompted the government to review its policies and adopt new approaches [6]. In addition, the increase in Muscat’s population from 120,000 in 1980 to 1,062,000 in 2014 [7] resulted in growing traffic congestion, air and sound pollution, and CO₂ emission concerns. On top of that, Oman had to fulfill its international commitments to reduce its carbon emissions as per the Paris Agreement [8].

Between 2014 and 2015, the Oman National Transport Company was rebranded to MWASALAT and asked to provide public transit services in Muscat [9]. Later, in 2018 MWASALAT extended its services to two other main cities; Sohar and Salalah [12]. The company made great strides in improving its services and abiding by international standards [9]. In 2015, MWASALAT signed a contract with Grupo Ruiz- a Spanish operator, to develop a strategy for providing integrated and efficient bus services [10]. Those steps earned MWASALAT several awards globally and regionally like the ‘IRU Bus Excellence Award-AC Mercedes buses and coaches’ in 2017, an International award for the Excellence in Marketing of the Strategic Plan presented by the International Road Transport Federation in 2019, and finally, an award for Excellence in nationalization and succession planning in the GCC. [9] With reference to documents provided by Mr. Al Azizi, [12] some services’ development is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The development of Oman National Transport Company Services [12].

In spite of those achievements, the public transit services were used by only 0.50% of the city’s residents – as was calculated in the Introduction. In the following point, the paper tries to investigate the reasons behind this phenomenon and suggest a practical solution.

Evaluation of public transport service in Muscat - case study

Since the public transit service has started in Muscat in 2014, four years before the other two cities; Salalah & Sohar [12], Muscat has been selected as a case study. In order to identify the main challenges that affect the effectiveness of public transit in Muscat and evaluate its services, to discuss the suggested solutions, and due to a lack of other references, two interviews were conducted with high ranked officials in MWASALT [9,12]. In addition, a survey was distributed by the author to the students of the Scientific College of Design in Muscat, and they were asked to involve their family members to secure a random sample of age groups, sexes, professions, and neighborhoods in Muscat. It is worthy mentioned that the results of the mentioned survey are just indicators as the participant sample is very limited. A large-scale survey may give more accurate results. However, this is beyond the scope of this research.

The questionnaire questions were prepared according to the evaluation criteria provided by the PVPC – Pioneer Valley Planning Commission – called TEC scoring system. This system is utilized by the PVPC to show the regional influence of Federal Aid qualified transportation reform projects. Only the evaluation criteria which are relevant to the objectives of this research were included; Livability, Mobility, Safety and Security, Environment and Climate Change, and Quality of Life. The following factors were selected from the TEC scoring system to be questioned, which are in line with this paper objective. The evaluation criteria were defined in the TEC scoring system as follows:

• ‘Livability’; comprehensive street policy, improve non-motorized transport, and providing a pedestrian network.

• ‘Mobility’; attractiveness and reliability of public transportation and minimizing traffic congestion.

• ‘Safety & Security’; encourage accessible and safe pedestrian environment.

• ‘Environment & Climate Change’; enhance air quality, backing green societies, reduction of CO₂ emissions, and improving connectivity.

• ‘Quality of Life’; enhance access to work, parks, study, and open spaces[14].

The total number of forms distributed was one hundred and eighty, and the returned responses were seventy-two, with a rate of 56.25%. The demographic data of the participants represent fifteen different districts in Muscat, and females made up 54% of the sample. The main age group is 18–30 with a ratio of 63%. Car owners represented 68% of the participants, and adding carpooling users grows that number to 79.2%, which reflects the high rate of car use. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first time in the Sultanate that a survey was conducted among the general public to measure their attitude toward public transport and the suggested alternative services. It is worth mentioning that, MWASLAT conducts annual surveys to measure user satisfaction only. According to the author’s survey results, the challenges could be summarized as follows:

Public transport accessibility

Accessibility has many definitions; the one relevant to public transport is given by Dunn Joycee as ‘The quality of transportation supporting specific area and the easiness with which residents can access the service’. Joycee also classifies accessibility metrics into three categories; access to destination via public transit, journey time, and access to bus stops [29]. Figure 2 shows the current distribution of transit stops in Muscat. The area shown in the map is much smaller than the city itself. This means that there’s neither efficient access to destinations nor effective access to transit stops; except for a limited population living close to the bus city routs based on a 1 km Euclidean distance which was specified as the easy walk range [30].

Figure 2. The Current Distribution of Transit Stops in Muscat Is Convenient to Limited Population Close to the Bus City Routs Based On 1 Km Euclidean Distance (The map source is the annual report of MWASALAT [9]. and the range of easy walk distance is added by the author according to the map scale).

From the time perspective, it was considered it convenient if they can access the bus stop/destination within ten minutes walking time [30]. Figure 3 shows that only 28% of the survey participants live within the convenient walking distance zone.

Figure 3. Only 28% of the Survey Participants Live in the Convenient Walking Zone (5-10 minutes [31]. – Chart prepared by the author).

As for journey duration, Figure 4 shows the time taken to commute via a car compared with the time taken to reach the nearest bus stop for the same participants. In some cases, it takes less time to commute via car than to walk to the nearest bus stop. Based on the ‘General Investigation on Basic data of Shenzhen Transport Planning’, the time needed to walk to the bus stop must not exceed 33% of the whole journey duration [31] which means that public transport in Muscat is still below that standard. Some scholars noticed that governments do not realize the link between transit journey time and economic vibrancy and development [13]. Eng. Mohammed Al Ghafri stated that the current linear type of bus routes is not efficient, and the bus routes must take a fish-bone form [9].

Figure 4. A Comparison Between Time to Commute by Car and to Walk to the Nearest Bus Stop for the Survey Participants (Charts prepared by the author).

The 75% participants who had no experience with public transit indicated their reasons in Figure 5. the lowest satisfaction values were given, respectively, to more time taken than the private car, bus stops are away from home, bus transit is away from work. Those three factors are relevant to accessibility.

Figure 5. The Reasons Indicated by 75% of the Participants for Being Non-Public Transport Users (Chart prepared by the author).

Public transport competitive properties

Private car usage has always surpassed public transit, not only for its convenience, comfort and freedom, but also for pleasure driving and its status standing in society [32]. In addition, the door-to-door merit of the private vehicle poses a great challenge to public transit [31]. The survey results revealed that 91.70% are using the private car to commute. In addition, the car is also used for the following activities shown in Figure 6. The high rate of private vehicle uses for daily life necessities (groceries 71%, and pharmacy 57%) indicates that neighborhood land use has to be reviewed to make those services more accessible. In addition, when the participants were asked if they ever used public transport, 75% answered no. Accordingly, it appears that more supportive facilities must be incorporated within the current excellent features of MWASALAT.

Figure 6. Most Commonly Indicated Uses and Destinations Of Car Users (Chart prepared by the author).

Climate challenge

Muscat has harsh climatic. In summer, the average temperature is 31–48°C in the shade, with a high level of humidity, and the summer season extends from April to December [4]. The participants’ response concerning promoting factors to use public transport was extremely favorable to elements that mitigate the extreme heat, as shown in Figure 7. Equipping the bus stops with AC was given 58.5% approval, then providing electric vehicles to carry the users from the bus stop to their homes, which adds a door-to-door element to public transit.

Figure 7. Factors That Would Encourage More Use of PT: Factors That Help Mitigate the Harsh Climate Were Highly Ranked (Chart prepared by the author).

Public transport promotion

MWASALAT was awarded a global award for the merit in the strategic plan, given by the International Road Transport Federation 2019 [9]. However, it seems that it needs to promote its facilities and services for the people as well. Despite already dedicating a space for females in the buses and coaches, nonpublic transport users with a rate of 29% stated that they will use public transit if this feature was available (Figure 5). In addition, 35% of the survey sample believe that the bus is not comfortable, despite the entire fleet being modern air-conditioned Mercedes buses (shown in Figure 1).

Walking attractiveness

As was mentioned before, many scholars linked using public transit and walking to bus stops as two coveted activities [25]. Accordingly, researchers urged city planners and authorities to support walking opportunities [33]. Designing pedestrian-friendly-walkways includes continuous wide sidewalks, crossing facilities, esthetic features (tree-lined streets), garbage bins, interesting views and architecture [30]. Guan emphasized providing pedestrians shade, which is particularly relevant for Muscat with its extreme hot climate, helping provide a comfortable and convenient walking experience [33]. The survey participants approved providing a shaded pedestrian walkway flanked by trees, flowers, and plants from the bus stop to destinations with a rate of almost 40% (Figure 7).

Integral proposal for changing sprawl to walkable cities: the role of public transit

Based on the collected data from literature review, survey results analysis and interviews with two high-ranking employees in MWASALAT, this research provides a comprehensive proposal to change the current sprawl-based city to a walkable one by integrating urban design and street landscape with the public transport, which could be also supported by some techniques to be more convenient.

Neighborhood urban design and public transit network

Since Urban design is the key factor of the provision of sustainable and healthy cities [34], this research is proposing dividing existing cities into compact neighborhoods (N) (Figure 8) with a walking distance of 5–10 minutes to their centers (F). These centers (C) must have retail facilities that accommodate the daily needs for people. Consequently, the neighborhood will be more pedestrian oriented, adding opportunities for walking and encouraging less sedentary lifestyles. Then, different centers could be connected to a common center (CC) via electrical vehicles (D) which could be linked to the bus city route (A) via a new route extension (B). Accordingly, the current linear type of city bus route will transform into an efficient fish-bone-type network that is more accessible, sustainable, and a potential backbone of a healthy city.

Figure 8. A proposal to change a sprawl into a walkable city (prepared by the author).

A: Existing city bus route, B: New suggested extension, C: City/Neighborhood center, D: Electric car path, F: 5–10 min walking distance

The above proposal was applied to a selected city; Madinat el Sultan Qaboos in Muscat for the mentioned reasons in the introduction. The city was divided into four compact neighborhoods; N1-N4 with livable centers; C1-C4. In such example, the maximum walking distance of the four neighborhoods; F1-F4 is F3 with 1.20 km, which is still in the range of convenient walking distance as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Madinat Al Sultan Qaboos – example of applying the suggested proposal to shift sprawl to walkable city.

A Existing city bus route B New suggested extension C: Neighborhood/City center D Electric car path F: 5–10 m walking distance (Prepared by the author – Map from Muscat Municipality)

Pedestrian backing infrastructure

Creating a ‘walk appeal’ by providing an enjoyable surrounding that will help with the ease of access to shaded walkways with arcades and stairways to introduce an interesting walking experience [33] and mitigate the harsh climate. In addition, providing the needed physical infrastructure such as street connectivity, crossing signs, street trees, and architecture details [35].

Exclusive bus lane

A very effective technique to shorten the bus journey timeframe is by setting up an exclusive bus lane. This will enable the bus to bypass congestions during peak times, and increase users’ satisfaction [32].

Conclusion

Oman started its modernization plan in 1970. Since the country has a large area and a low population density, the state adopted urban sprawl and private cars as a lifestyle. However, the accelerated population growth in Muscat caused some sustainability challenges like high-energy consumption and air pollution, besides many health and social problems. Recently, public transit rather than private vehicles started to gain popularity within academics as a sustainable transit mode, with its large capacity and fuel consumption savings. In 2014, the state decided to provide public transportation for the first time in the capital Muscat. Over the next nine years, the assigned company for this plan, MWASALAT, made great efforts to provide an excellent international standard to its customers and to be an excellent transit operator, which won it many awards globally and regionally. However, the current users of MWASALAT are only 0.5% of the total population of Muscat as per 2022 statistics. To understand the reasons behind this, and search for a solution, a questionnaire was prepared to evaluate the current services of MWASALAT based on the TEC scoring system and the suggested proposal approaches were included to test their appeal. The questionnaire was distributed to a random sample of students of the Scientific College of Design and their family members, and the results were analyzed and summarized. In addition, two interviews were conducted, with high-ranking employees in MWASALAT. Moreover, the relevant literature was reviewed, which revealed that urban sprawl – the current prevalent urban environment in Oman – greatly reduces the effectiveness of public transportation. This research provides a proposal to transform Muscat – and other similar cities in the world that share the same features – from the current sprawl to a walkable city. The proposal combines elements of urban planning, and landscape design, to provide an enjoyable walking experience. It also would add more features to the public transit system to raise its performance, appeal and efficiency, such as a dedicated bus lane, and transforming the current linear type of bus route to a ‘fish bone’ layout, which increases accessibility and mobility. Hence, considerable environmental, health, economic and social gains could be achieved by replacing private cars with other transit modes; walking, cycling and public transportation. However, since the suggested proposal is applied theoretically on a case study – Madinat el Sultan Qaboos city, it is recommended to be refined more later on, after being actually tested in a real setting and applied to other cities. Finally, the research emphasizes the fact that shifting from car reliance to public transport needs strong backing from policymakers, public health authorities, city planners, media and educational institutions, but most importantly, acceptance by the people.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.