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ABSTRACT
In shrinking cities, adaptive responses such as ‘smart shrinkage’ are regarded as a promising approach to address depopulation and the quality of life for remaining residents. While its validity gains recognition, the gap between theory and practice still exists. Empirical studies validating the theoretical concept are few, particularly in the context of Asia where urban shrinkage is rapidly occurring. This study identified key opportunities and obstacles for realizing adaptive responses in practice, using the case of North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. The findings showed that its adaptive responses were complementary to pro-growth responses, strengthening regional relationships and shared infrastructure.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. In this study, the term ‘urban shrinkage’ refers to the deterioration of the whole or part of a city in social-economic (e.g. population density, unemployment, and poverty) and physical conditions (e.g. housing density, changes in housing, and green spaces) over time (J. Hollander et al. Citation2019; Jeon and Kim Citation2020). The conditions mutually influence each other, and their interaction contributes to population decline (Jeong and Gim Citation2023). Schilling and Logan (Citation2008) identified it as a city that has seen a population decline of over 25% in the last 40 years. Oswalt and Rieniets (Citation2006) described it as either a total population decline exceeding 10% or an average annual decline rate surpassing one percent over the past 50 years.
2. Although urban shrinkage a multidimensional phenomenon, depopulation has emerged as the most common manifestation of shrinkage across cities in Europe, North America, and developing regions (Liu and Liu Citation2022). According to Haase et al. (Citation2014), the drivers influencing urban shrinkage led to depopulation, which, in turn, impacts the urban development of a shrinking city, illustrating a feedback loop between them. Thus, depopulation and urban shrinkage exhibit a causal relationship, acting simultaneously as both cause and consequence of each other.
3. An urban shrinkage policy indicates policy responses to urban shrinkage through various measures, including pro-growth and adaptive responses (Stryjakiewicz and Jaroszewska Citation2016). Smart shrinkage is one type of adaptive response, serving as a planning concept for managing depopulation.
4. According to the Act on Special Cases Concerning Vacant Houses or Small-scale Housing Improvement (Citation2023), the term ‘vacant house’ is defined as a house not occupied or used for at least one year as of the date when the head of a local government verifies its occupancy status. However, certain types of houses, as prescribed by the Presidential Decree, such as unsold houses, are excluded from this definition. Although the Act does not make a legal distinction between types of vacant houses, the Korean Statistical Information Service (Citation2023c) categorizes them by year of construction and general house type (i.e. detached houses, apartments, row houses, multi-family houses, houses in non-residential buildings). Motivation behind the development of relevant policies is the Vacant House Improvement Project aiming to renovate or demolish vacant houses and to manage or utilize them efficiently. This project includes formulating a Vacant House Improvement Plan, conducting fact-finding surveys of vacant houses, and facilitating their demolition and purchase.
5. Koo et al. (Citation2016) developed selection criteria for a shrinking city that fits the South Korean context: a shrinking city as one with an average annual population change rate of less than −0.15% over the past 20 years and a population decline of over 25% compared to its peak population within the last 40 years. Using these criteria, they evaluated 77 South Korean cities, excluding metropolitan cities, and identified a total of 20 as shrinking cities. Furthermore, in 2021, the Korean Ministry of the Interior and Safety identified 89 out of 229 local governments as areas of concern for regional extinction based on the Special Act on National Balanced Development. This selection considered factors such as birth rate, the number of elderly people aged over 65, the number of children aged under 14 (Korean Ministry of the Interior and Safety Citation2021).
6. Han et al. (Citation2023) identified governance issues in China’s urban shrinkage, focusing on the case of Suihua in Northeast China. The findings indicated that the re-industrialization centered on land transactions and pollution-intensive industries, which not key industries in China, actually worsened local government efforts to counter urban shrinkage. North Gyeongsang Province shares a similar background and patterns of urban shrinkage with Suihua. From the 1970s to the 1990s, it was a hub for key industries such as steel and fiber. However, it began to experience rapid population decline after the late 2000s, primarily due to the lower technological competitiveness of its manufacturing industries, which were dependent on simple assembly. This shrinkage was further accelerated by the relocation of major companies to the metropolitan area as a result of the industrial restructuring.
7. Three local governments (Sangju, Cheongsong, and Yecheon) in North Gyeongsang Province were selected for the 2023 Rural Space Maintenance Initiative by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. It aimed to convert vacant houses and barns into multifunctional cultural spaces and living infrastructure over a period of five years with a budget of $35.6 million (North Gyeongsang Province government office Citation2023).
8. The master plan encompassed the entire North Gyeongsang Province, including 10 cities and 13 counties. It extended from 2021 to 2030, with short-term projects in the initial five years and subsequent activities aligned with the mid- to long-term road map. It comprised six strategies, 17 policy tasks, and 40 projects, with a total cost of around $2.4 billion. Although the MPLER is a non-statutory plan, its visions were established with a close connection to central government policies (i.e. the Committee on Balanced National Development, interagency population policies, and the Special Act on Support for Depopulation Regions) and regional development plans (including the North Gyeongsang Province comprehensive plan and the urban master plans of its local governments) during the planning process (Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements Citation2021).
9. The Special Act on Balanced National Development (Citation2023) mandates that central, provincial, and local governments secure budgets for independent regional development tailored to their characteristics, while also promoting locally-driven measures. It requires the State to create a balanced national development plan every five years, guided by the sectoral development plans and regional plans. The Framework Act on the Management of Local Government Funds (Citation2023) prescribes improvements in publicness and efficiency of local government finances by establishing fundamental guidelines for managing and operating local funds. It mandates prior consultation with the Minister of the Interior and Safety when establishing any fund within a local government, to assess its appropriateness. The North Gyeongsang Province Ordinance for the Promotion and Support of Urban Regeneration (Citation2017) addresses matters under the Special Act on Urban Regeneration and its enforcement decree, focusing on enhancing urban regeneration in North Gyeongsang Province. It includes a legal framework for establishing an urban regeneration committee and for the approval and evaluation of urban regeneration action plans.
10. An intermediary organization acts as a bridge in the governance structure and as a platform for diverse civic activities, facilitating communication and balancing the interests of the administration, citizens, and communities.
11. The flexibly managing regional settlement areas and enhancing sharing economy, a policy task in the MPLER, involves establishing flexible regional settlement areas and promoting shared use of convenience services as major project contents. This study focused on the latter as a key AR strategy addressed in previous research (Audirac Citation2018; Schmidt-Thomé and Lilius Citation2023) to investigate ARs in North Gyeongsang Province.
12. It refers to a policy that supports residents of a metropolitan area or neighboring city in establishing a residence base with a special connection to a region, enabling them to live there on a medium- to long-term, recurring basis. In 2021, North Gyeongsang Province established the Master Plan for Dual Life (MPDL) with 39 tasks dedicated to improving living space and services by the local government, along with 46 tasks aimed at enhancing local attractiveness.
13. It serves as an intermediary organization for the public-private partnership in Uisung. Through initiatives such as education programs, village creation projects, and youth policy, it has played a central role in fostering resident-led regional transformation.