Olympism and Chinese humanism: a critical analysis of the opening ceremony of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympic Games

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to examine China’s discourse on uniting all ethnic groups internally and conveying the human community to the world in the opening ceremony of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics (BWO), reflecting the different Olympism of the East and the West and the intersection of Chinese humanism discourse to form the core concept of this study. In terms of research methods, this study took the opening ceremony of the BWO as the research object, collected the content of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, media reports, and related academic research, and analyzed the discussion of the 2022 BWO at the opening ceremony. The results have shown that the BWO opening ceremony continues the Chinese humanism concept of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, showing the connotation of people-oriented patriotism and emphasizing the ideal of a community with a shared future for humanity in the world. This study concludes that the BWO opening ceremony emphasizes Chinese tradition, culture, and patriotism. At the same time, the opening ceremony’s theme is set as the concept of “One World, One Family.” This discourse has formed a contrast between cosmopolitanism and patriotism, which not only shows the contradiction in the internal discourse of Chinese humanism but also shows the dialogue’s dilemma between the Asian value thinking advocated by Chinese humanism and the universal values of individualism and human rights emphasized by Western concepts.

KEYWORDS:

• Chinese humanism
• Olympism
• Beijing Winter Olympics

1. Introduction

The 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics (BWO) kicked off on 4 February 2022, at the Beijing National Stadium, commonly known as the Bird’s Nest. The director of the opening ceremony was Zhang Yimou, and the program took the construction of a community with a shared future for humanity as the core conception. As the director who directed the opening ceremonies of the two Olympic Games, Zhang Yimou pointed out that unlike the way the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics attempted to show the world China’s 5,000-year-old civilization, the main axis of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO is based on “human beings and their commonality.” The change from “me” to “we” is not to introduce China itself too much to the world but to convey to the world “what we do together and what we can do together.” The opening ceremony of the BWO conveyed China’s vision of a human community.¹

Moreover, in the performance of the BWO opening ceremony, people are the subject. People’s spiritual outlook and people’s inner emotions are all valued by director Zhang Yimou. Hence, the director team tries to integrate everyone into it, just like showing the smiling faces of people worldwide in the opening ceremony “Tribute to the People” and ending with John Lennon’s song Imagine encourages people to put aside their differences and unite to preserve the planet.

On the other hand, also around the care of people, the Chinese government faced the challenge of Western countries led by the United States to question their human rights records at the BWO. Indeed, back in 2008, when China hosted its first Olympic Games, U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi called on U.S. President George Bush to take an “opening ceremony boycott” of China’s human rights record.² At this time, before the 2022 BWO, the United States’ doubts about China still revolve around the genocide of Uyghurs in Xinjiang, coupled with the controversy over the disappearance of tennis player Peng Shuai,³ which led to another boycott by Pelosi, calling on the Biden administration to boycott by sending athletes to the Olympics without official representatives, and calling this action diplomatic boycott, while some countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom joined the campaign not to send officials to the opening ceremony. However, some did not explicitly say that the move was a boycott of China.⁴

How does the Chinese government respond to these controversies surrounding people? Brownell points out that China sees Western questioning of its human rights record as a pretext for Western countries to threaten the rise of China and pose a threat to the West and that China has also taken a different approach to emphasizing the so-called “Humanistic Olympics” as a way to show the world its celebration of respect for individuals, differences, diversity and inclusion in response to Western countries’ doubts about its human rights record.⁵ The Humanistic Olympics embody the unity, friendship, and respect in Olympism. The content of the opening ceremony of the Winter Olympics emphasizes people-oriented unity, peace, and harmonious coexistence, just like the lyrics of the BWO song Together for a Shared Future: “We all need love, everyone holds hands, together for a shared future, come together, together to the future,” seems to shake hands with open hands to the countries that boycotted the BWO. At the same time, during the flame lighting ceremony, Chinese athletes from all generations, from the fifties to the present, were selected to form the flame team. The final stick was deliberately arranged, and the Uyghur female cross-country skier Dinigel Yilamujiang, along with Nordic Combined athlete Zhao Jiawen, lit the flame to show China’s attempt to use the image of “solidarity” to respond to the United States and other countries that accuse it of genocide against the Uyghur ethnic group in Xinjiang.

However, less than a week after the end of the BWO, the largest war in Europe since World War II took place: the Ukrainian-Russian War, in which Russia invaded Ukraine. In the international context, the United States and China have experienced periods of tension and cooperation since 1949 on issues such as trade, climate change, and Taiwan. U.S.-China tensions were also reflected in the 2022 BWO, where the lack of official representatives from the United States highlighted U.S.-China tensions. After that, U.S.-China relations were further strained by Pelosi’s visit to Taiwan in August. As of 5 August 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC stated to take countermeasures against the United States, such as suspending Sino-US cooperation on the repatriation of illegal immigrants, cooperation in criminal justice, and Sino-US climate change talks. In these international contexts, China’s discourse on uniting ethnic groups and transmitting the human community to the world to face the Future together, which revolves around the convergence of different discourses centered on “people,” East and West, forms the core concept of this study to examine the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, Olympism and Chinese humanism.

This study employs the document analysis research method to critically discuss and analyze the literature with theoretical concepts. Document analysis is a systematic review and evaluation of documents.⁶ The analysis process involves discovering, selecting, evaluating, and integrating texts and presenting them in terms of topics, classifications, and cases. Evaluating texts’ authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and significance is necessary in selecting texts.⁷ The text of the research material needs to consider the authenticity of the primary source, the reliability of the data source, the content of the typical text, and the meaning and context of the text being produced. Therefore, this study mainly draws on the opening ceremony film of the 2022 BWO, the text materials of the BWO officially released by the Chinese government. The primary sources of information are official Chinese media such as People’s Daily, Xinhua, CCTV.com, and official media webpages. Data retrieval was carried out with keywords such as the opening ceremony of the BWO and toward the Future together. After data collection, the research data is processed through content and thematic analysis. Content analysis is an organizational classification process that systematically relates to core research questions; thematic analysis identifies texts and classifies emerging topics for analysis.⁸ Based on the above research methods, this research will discuss the relationship between Olympism and the theoretical concept of Chinese humanism.

Before entering into the discussion of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, Olympism, and Chinese Humanistic Olympics, it is necessary to discuss the relevant research of the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. The performance and significance of the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games have attracted the attention of many scholars. The opening ceremony of the Olympic Games is a mega-event, a large-scale cultural event, usually organized by a mixture of national governments and international non-governmental organizations, rich in theatrical characteristics, popular culture, and international significance, which can be regarded as the “official” version of popular culture. The modern Olympic Games were revived by the French nobleman Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who established the principle that the Olympic Games should be held in different locations every four years at the beginning of the modern Olympic Games as a way to promote and diffuse the Olympic spirit of freedom, progress and equality throughout the world.⁹ Moreover, for Coubertin, the modern Olympics are not just an athletic show but must follow the rituals of their ancestors in ancient times. Coubertin once criticized the 1924 Antwerp Olympics as a mere athletic competition because it lacked powerful symbolism. Since then, the Olympic Games have maintained the idea of Coubertin in specific detail in both the opening and closing ceremonies.¹⁰

In the Chinese Olympics, Zhang Yimou has been the director of the opening ceremonies of the Olympic Games twice. He had a tragic childhood. At the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution, he was sent by the peasants to be “re-educated,” and then he went to work as a porter.¹¹ In the 1980s, during Deng Xiaoping’s reform and opening up, China gradually moved toward the world’s power. The style of Zhang Yimou’s films also changed from the early criticism of society and the focus on ordinary people to emphasize heroism and individualism. However, the tragic fate of individualistic heroes suggests that Zhang Yimou’s critical stance on individualism is consistent with the Chinese government’s position that it is difficult to accept individualism.¹² Also, Zhang Yimou’s films present a realistic cinematic style depicting simple people’s lives in contemporary Chinese society. Zhang Yimou produced a more inward-looking approach to the issues of China today under the pressures of globalization, which may be why Zhang was selected to be the director of the Olympic ceremony.¹³

Unlike reading sports competitions where the event’s outcome cannot be predicted, the opening ceremony is carefully planned and rehearsed. The opening ceremony of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, known as the political theater, is a case in point. The 1936 Olympic opening ceremony used rituals, theatrical practices, and specific symbols.¹⁴ The views of the powerful can be seen in the opening ceremony of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, and the content of the authoritative government at that time was to establish an atmosphere of peace and friendship. Although the Olympic Games symbolized the meaning of peace from ancient Greece, the organizers of the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games also changed the meaning of peace in the Olympic Games by changing the lyrics of the song “peaceful participation in the Olympic Games” to “glory to participate in the Olympic Games,” “supremacy of laws and rules” to “supremacy of loyalty to the oath,” and put the value of military Nazism and put glory and loyalty to the oath above peace and law, to transform the peaceful meaning of the Olympic Games. Ironically, the Olympic spirit of peace was fleeting, and just three years after the Olympics, the Second World War outbreak was caused by Nazi Germany. The opening ceremony of the Olympic Games and the spirit of the Olympic Games are still short of actual practice.

Similarly, Arning analyzes the opening ceremony from a semiotic perspective, pointing out that it not only helps the host country to demonstrate its soft power externally but also strengthens the cohesion of unity internally. However, the host’s desire to demonstrate its soft power to the rest of the world involves communication between different cultures, hence the pulling between the internationalism of the Olympic Games and the nationalism of the host country’s desire to highlight national characteristics. In semiotics, there are two coding systems: one is iconic signs, and the other is symbolic signs. The former is the accumulation of some human perceptions, color, shape, sound, and taste, which are used to supplement human language interaction when they cannot communicate and are limited. On the other hand, symbolism is a metaphor used in a shared culture. Usually, symbols combine iconic and symbolic meanings, which is also the case in the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games.¹⁵

Nevertheless, from 1980 Moscow to the opening ceremonies of the London 2012 Olympics, there were iconic elements of mass performance, technological power, symbolic uniqueness, aesthetic charm, whimsy and humor, and magnificent music. There was a symbolic meaning that the organizers wanted to convey in these contents. In short, from a semiotic point of view, the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games can be interpreted as a semiotic text with two ideological goals. One is to show soft power. After all, the host country is the transmitter of the message, and the audience of the world is the recipient of the message, which belongs to the cognitive function. Second, the host country can promote the feeling of an “imaginary community” for its citizens, which is partly an emotional function.

Think of the opening ceremony of the Olympics as a display of soft power, which can be said to be an attraction inspired by a country’s cultural and political ideals and policies. Joseph S. Nye discusses the concept of soft power which is getting others to want the outcomes that you want-co-opts people rather than coercing them.¹⁶ Soft power uses charisma, appeal, and message distinct from military and economic. Soft power can be understood as the strength to persuade people with the power of ideas/thinking and the attraction of values.¹⁷ For example, many values, such as democracy, human rights, and individual opportunities, are deeply seductive.¹⁸ In contrast to military and hard power, soft power can inspire appreciation for a country’s values, imitate its ways, and aspire to prosperity.

Leheny uses the concept of soft power to analyze the formation of Japan’s soft power and the content of the host country’s soft power to the world at the opening ceremonies of the 2008 Beijing and 2012 London Olympic Games.¹⁹ The opening ceremony of the Olympics becomes a part of a country’s public diplomacy that strives to present its country to the world in an attractive way, which may help improve the country’s soft power, or it may also be said that a country could achieve its goals through persuasion, not coercion. However, Leheny also criticizes the notion of soft power, particularly that receivers of soft power messages don’t always understand them the way the senders intend and are always interpreted in various local contexts. The opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics conveyed the discourse of an open and integrated multi-ethnic metropolis with an open and humorous style. The opening of the 2008 Beijing Olympics did not take the humorous route. However, the spectacular sound and visual way present multicultural pluralism.

In contrast, China’s ceremony may present chauvinistic ethnonationalism, such as Han Ethnocentrism, which identifies the Han people as the cultural and racial backbone of the nation and calls for the public recognition of the Han as the “core race.”²⁰ At the London 2012 Olympic Games opening ceremony, Boyle’s planning team used a mix of ethnicities and music/dance teams to recreate a vibrant and diverse city, constructing a multicultural image of London. However, the team’s narrative, directed by the London opening ceremony, also drew criticism that it avoided the history of the British Empire’s colonization.

On the other hand, Ho notes that the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics discussed collectivism and individualism. For example, Ho argues that people in collective societies value harmony.²¹ In the opening ceremony, the collective effort to achieve harmony is depicted through the aesthetic of group unity. However, Ho disagrees with the dichotomy of viewing the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. Ho criticized the dichotomy of individualism and collectivism, which oppose each other. The view of the dichotomy is between individuality and collectivity (collectivism), capitalism and communism, and self and otherness. Ho pointed out that there is no absolute individuality and collectivity, or self and otherness; there is instead a constant re-translating, reshaping, and reformulating of the dichotomized. The dichotomy of the collective or emphasis on the individual only reflects the current perception of the visual “collective” aesthetic part of the opening ceremony. Ho agrees that since the collectivist opening design strategy emerged in the 1930s, the question would be the difference between mass performances (or totalitarian displays) in collective and individual systems. Ho also points out that the key difference is that fascist aesthetics emphasize that each performer member is the central position. In contrast, collective aesthetics is the unity in which each performer member has a different role and coordinates with each other to achieve consistency.²²

Lee and Yoon compare the Beijing and London Olympics opening ceremonies. They point out that the 2008 Beijing Games offered a grand narrative emphasizing Chinese unity and prioritizing the country’s official narrative with its collective identity. In contrast, the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics emphasized the fragmentation of the United Kingdom with a pluralistic identity, ongoing social inclusion, cultural mixture, and multiculturalism. However, this is the emergence of different kinds of nationalism under globalization. Lee and Yoon also pointed out that the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics reproduced Sinocentrism nationalism, while the 2012 London Olympics emphasized citizen-based, multicultural nationalism.²³

From these documents related to the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games, the meaning conveyed by the opening ceremony is a way for countries and governments to show their soft power externally. It has a cohesive effect internally. The content of the opening ceremony has its special meaning in the display of visual, sound, and other styles. However, as Ho raised in his critique of the dichotomous collectivism and individualism of the Beijing Olympics opening ceremony, we are reminded of the dangers of dualism.²⁴

This study does not distinguish the difference between the collectivism of the BWO and the West. Instead, it discusses the Chinese of the BWO and the contextual origin of the formation of Chinese humanism discourse. These human-centered discussions of Chinese humanists’ interpretations and Western challenges to Chinese rights are at the heart of the primary debate. In response to these humanism discussions, this study mainly discusses the following issues:

• What are the discussions between Olympism and Chinese humanism?

• What are the arguments of Chinese humanism?

• What was the discussion at the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO?

The opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO is based on the concept of One World, One Family (shijie datong, tianxia yijia). It emphasizes people-oriented thinking, and the arrangement of the opening ceremony content is rooted in the debate of Chinese humanism, Olympism, and universal values. Therefore, this study will be divided into three sections: 1. Olympism and Chinese humanism, 2. the argument for Chinese humanism, and 3. discussion at the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO.

2. Olympism and Chinese humanism

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) stated that Olympism is a philosophical idea that manifests and merges the balance of body, will, and mind. Olympism integrates sport with culture and education and pursues a lifestyle based on the joy of effort, good examples, social responsibility, and respect for universal moral principles. The goal of Olympism is to use sport in the service of harmony in human development to promote a peaceful society that cares for human dignity. In the content of Olympism, there are three essential elements: excellence, friendship, and respect, and the three values of Olympism highlight the care for people with solidarity. The value of unity lies in building a peaceful and better world through unity, teamwork, joy, and optimism in sports. The Olympic Games inspire humanity to overcome political, economic, gender, racial, or religious differences and to build friendships in situations of those differences.

Humanism is a worldview that emphasizes human-centeredness and shifts the focus from religion to secularity rather than God-centered worldviews.²⁵ Humanism is a philosophical theory and a worldview. Humanism takes as its starting point the interests, values, and dignity of the human person, especially the individual. For humanism, tolerance, nonviolence, and freedom of thought between people are the most important principles of human relations. The concept of humanism (rendao zhuyi or renben zhuyi) is also translated into Humanitarianism in English. However, humanitarianism is the idea of attaching importance to human values, especially the most basic human life and basic living conditions, paying attention to human happiness and emphasizing mutual assistance and care among human beings. In the West, Humanism originated during the European Renaissance as a trend of thought developed in response to theology in which the Christian Church ruled society. At its core, humanitarianism focused on human well-being, which later extended to charity for the weak.²⁶ Susan Brownell argues that the concept of humanism, as interpreted in China, is difficult to understand in English. Academically, it is often translated as humanities, and the word comes from the meaning of human and literature (with writing, cultural pursuit, and culture).²⁷

Brownell found that China embellishes the Olympic spirit by hosting the Olympics. China added the humanistic Olympics, which is difficult to understand in English. Brownell uses the idea of “post-Olympism” to transform the modern and progressive values embodied by the past modernists with the Olympic Games and the question “Is Olympism likely to change China?” to “What the change of Olympism in China is.” Brownell points out that the Eurocentric IOC assumes that their emphasis on fair play, excellence, higher, faster, and stronger is universal, but it is not.²⁸ The Eurocentric assumption that the transmission of these values could benefit the arrival of the world also assumes that the transmission is a one-way process and that the dawn of Western civilization has the potential to light up other dark corners of the world. However, such assumptions may be seen as modernist and colonialist discourses.²⁹ China has broken the passive inheritance and taken the initiative to supplement Olympism. Therefore, it is worth considering the relationship between humanism and Olympism in China and the complementation of Olympism by Chinese humanism.

China’s interpretation of the humanistic Olympics emphasizes what Chinese culture and Chinese humanistic characteristics can bring to Olympism. The thinking behind China’s addition to Olympism is also discussed by Brownell, citing the example of He Zhenliang, a representative of the Chinese Olympic Committee.³⁰ He Zhenliang criticized the IOC for its long history of Eurocentrism. During the period He Zhenliang served as an IOC member, he proposed to the IOC to increase the number of representatives in Asia and adjust the allocation criteria for IOC surpluses so that developing countries could be treated more equally. So, what views did China add to Olympism?

China proposed the concept of the “humanistic Olympics” when hosting the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The Beijing Organizing Bid Committee (BOBICO) highlighted three themes: Humanism, science and technology, and environmentalism. Among them, the humanistic, or civilized, Olympics are significant for thinking about multiculturalism in Olympism. He Zhenliang further explained the concept of the “humanistic Olympics” in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.³¹ The humanities of the 2008 Beijing Olympics are, first, to implement people-oriented thinking. From the training venues, news and broadcasting centers, Olympic villages, and media villages, it is necessary to consider how to enable athletes to perform at their highest level. Secondly, the humanistic Olympics mainly disseminate Olympic knowledge and carry forward the Olympic spirit, which embodies the humanistic spirit. The humanistic spirit of the Olympic Movement lies in enabling the people to understand that the spirit of the Olympic Movement is consistent with the goal of the country to build a harmonious society, so the people know that the Olympic Games are closely related to themselves. Finally, intangible culture mainly refers to the spiritual aspect of the nation, the people’s hospitality, civility, and courtesy, and the love and helpfulness of volunteers. These cultural aspects of the Olympic Movement embodied a vision of China’s national spirit.³²

China has integrated and supplemented Olympism with Chinese culture by interpreting the Humanistic Olympics. From the previous discussion of the “Humanistic Olympics” proposed by China to host the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the Beijing Olympics not only conveyed the connotation of Olympism but also highlighted Chinese culture and China’s national spirit and combined with Olympism to supplement it. The humanistic Olympics emphasized by China conveys that the spirit of Olympism is consistent with the country’s goals. Simultaneously, the Humanistic Olympics also embody China’s national spirit. The Humanistic Olympics is characterized by China, which embodies China’s national spirit and highlights an imaginary national community. They depict the Chinese national spirit as imbued with hospitality, civility, courtesy, and helpfulness.

Equally emphasizing the value of putting people first, Olympism is about respecting the individual and serving human development and harmony through sport to promote a peaceful society that cares for preserving human dignity. In other words, the spirit of Olympism, as proposed by the IOC, focuses on integrating the individual’s body, will, and mind to promote a peaceful society concerned with preserving human dignity. This concept is more in line with the humanist orientation toward the individual’s interests, values, and dignity, emphasizing individualism. On the other hand, China’s humanistic interpretation of the Olympic Games is a collective concept extended to the abstract Chinese national spirit by mutual respect between people. Accordingly, although China’s interpretation of humanism also emphasizes respect for individual differences, China’s humanistic discourse is not only about unity but also includes the collective elements of the state and the nation. For example, BOBICO advocates that humanities (rewen,人文) are a core feature of Chinese culture. BOBICO was the first to translate “rewen” into “civilized Olympic.” Beijing’s most important cultural goal is to show the world the characteristics of Chinese culture in the bid for the Olympic Games. The reporter used the topic of Olympism and culture to illustrate how Chinese culture can enrich Olympic culture. Implicit in the 2008 Beijing Olympics reflects China’s values characterized by collectivism.³³

In terms of the content of the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the opening ceremony shaped the image of a new China with traditional Chinese culture and values. The Confucian cosmopolitan ecumenism, the concept of “the unity of heaven and man” (tianren heyi), continues to be integrated with the spirit of friendship, unity, and fair play of the Olympic Games. The universal values of the Olympic ideal were reproduced in the opening ceremony, rich in national culture and values, with specific historical and cultural applications.³⁴ Children from ethnic minorities dressed in the costumes of their ethnic groups, holding the flag of the People’s Republic of China and singing the national anthem, but then became Han Chinese actors. Such an opening performance means that the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) official discourse on multiculturalism conveys unity in pluralism, and China’s multiculturalism is centered on the Han ethnicity. The universal spiritual values of Olympism were appropriated by specific nationalists and merged into a series of national values. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics opening ceremony, a progressive narrative was used to construct Chinese history while excluding China’s modern history.³⁵ China’s modern history covers the period from the second half of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, the Great Leap Forward of 1957–1960, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of 1966–1976, the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, and the Chinese government’s invasion of Tibet and human rights aggression issues.³⁶ The modern China history has influenced the development of sports in China. Hwang and Chang explored sports development under Mao’s socialism, the Cultural Revolution, and the post-Mao era.³⁷ Also, Morris discussed the sports in China from the 1910s to 1949, discussing the notions of sports, which were named tiyu, tiyu for the masses, and Chinese martial arts.³⁸

Furthermore, Ho studies the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics and points out that the opening ceremony blended Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist Chinese philosophies. Confucianism emphasizes wen and li to maintain social order; Buddhism has the concept of impermanence; and Taoism embraces the relationship between man and nature.³⁹ These philosophical concepts move toward a harmonious state of mind of individuals, cultures, and countless other elements. Among them, the Taoist concept of the unity of heaven and man is the core element of art and aesthetics. The humanization of nature and the naturalization of humans provide a contemporary understanding of traditional Chinese philosophy to achieve harmony between heaven and man. At the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games opening ceremony, Zhang Yimou displayed nature (equivalent to heaven) on the big screen, allowing the audience to feel the side of traditional Chinese philosophy, constructing harmony, and providing a surreal experience. From a philosophical point of view, the performance ritual of connecting the whole person with the heavens reaches a state of harmony.

However, whether the West wants to change China through Olympism or China wants to supplement long-standing Eurocentric Olympism with a passive move, the logic is that an institution or country promotes its values to the world. Just as the IOC promoted the idea of Olympism to the world, China seems to follow this logic, highlighting the characteristics of Chinese culture through its interpretation of humanism, especially highlighting the differences in the origins of ancient civilizations in the East and West and the mutual inspiration of different cultural contexts. By hosting the Olympic Games, China also conveys Chinese humanism and spiritual value to the world at the Olympic Games and counters the European-centric Olympic spiritual value. China’s supplement to Olympism is collectivism as the core and has the color of Sinocentrism. It is necessary to discuss the origins and debates of Chinese humanism further in the next section.

3. The argument for Chinese humanism

In the discussion of Olympism and Chinese humanism, the root cause is the debate at the ideological level of Chinese Humanism, involving the debate between cultural relativism and universalism. With its special historical and cultural context, the Chinese government explains its way. It focuses on caring for people, and such Chinese disagree that there is a universal value in the world. Further exploration of Chinese and universal values lies in a debate of “Asian Values” and cultural relativism.

Cultural relativism asserts that many values and practices vary from society to society. Along the way, Asian axiology has been put forward with the concept of relativism in response to different cultural and social backgrounds and used to debate Western universal values such as human rights and democracy. Anthropologists in the 1930s first proposed cultural relativism and advocates of Western values and communitarians are now using it.⁴⁰ The cultural relativist view asserts that universal values from the West are seen as values the West seeks to impose on the non-Western world.

Asian axiology refers to the fact that traditional Asian societies are characterized by the construction of responsibilities rather than rights; the rights of any individual, Family, or community are based on the fulfillment of responsibilities. Any reasonable concept of human rights is to assert that human beings have specific rights, which need to be prioritized in fulfilling social obligations regardless of everything. As a result, Western practices of rights and entitlements often contradict traditional, responsibility-based values. Moreover, Asian societies are often characterized by “respect for elders” and “social hierarchies.” The social hierarchy may suppress the freedom of expression of individual ideas, and this system of respect is an informal social coercion rather than a government policy.⁴¹

Asian values or Asian development models are often combined with Confucian thought. Singapore’s Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew combined rapid economic development with the promotion of Confucian values, which advocates of socialism with Chinese characteristics have embraced as the essence of Chinese tradition and turned to it as a basis for local culture. Confucianism was used to underpin Asian axiology, but paradoxically, Communist China violently opposed Confucianism during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.⁴²

China has resorted to cultural relativism and Asian axiology as a basis for discussing humanism. China’s central concept of community and state derives from the balance of power between individuals and communities. Traditional Chinese society is dominated by the pursuit of harmony, from the universe to the individual. So, how can we achieve harmony in a collective society that pays attention to society and the state? The philosophical ideas of the Chinese pre-Qin dynasty guided human interaction. In Confucianism, Confucius expounded humanistic ideas with benevolence as the core. Confucius’s teachings all revolve around “benevolent, renye” (renzhe, reny) and “benevolent, lover” (renzhe, airen); li (etiquette) is the normative norm for people-to-people interactions; the rule of law prohibitions are power-centered, top-down enforcement, and are used to rule the people. Man is not abstract but exists in society through concrete human relationships such as father, son, husband, and wife. Confucianism is a humanist ideology that attaches importance to people, real life, and morality, emphasizing “uniting the family, governing the country, and leveling the world.”⁴³ Thus, the path to harmony is li, usually translated into contemporary American or British etiquette. However, li is a complex hierarchy of interlocking social roles and relationships based on xiao (filial piety) and zhong (loyalty). Respect and mutual assistance are ideal ways to interact with people and maintain collective social order. Under this thinking, the individual’s morality will emphasize self-cultivation in pursuit of ren (humanness). Under the guidance of li, the individual can achieve self-restraint.⁴⁴

Communist China is a collectivist country, meaning the community is an organic solidarity. Its collective rights and interests will be put before the individual. Then, the individual will exist for the state, not the state, because of the individual. The idea of the individual does not exist. However, the importance of the individual is that it underpins the second layer of family-based community systems, and the community of families has different roles and abilities. China’s idea of social order thus denies the rights of the individual. It puts the rights of the community before the rights of the individual. “Individuals need to put the rights of the state ahead of their own,” the representative of China said at the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993.⁴⁵ Before the state, individuals had to sacrifice themselves and delay enjoying rights. No one can put his rights above the state or society, echoing the individual self-restraint of the philosophy of propriety.

In addition, collectivism and communitarianism are also reflected in the ancient Chinese philosophy of datong (大同) thought of “the world is public.” (tinxia weigong) Datong thought mainly expresses two meanings: one is to eliminate autocracy and achieve a high degree of democracy and equality in social ideals; the other is to eliminate division, safeguard the integrity and unity of the nation and the state, and the concept that national interests are higher than individual interests.⁴⁶ After the Qin (221–260 BC) and Han (206 BC-220AD) dynasties, the spirit of taking the world as one’s responsibility, being public and selfless, worrying about the worries of the world first, and being happy and happy after the world all represented the traditional virtues of Chinese culture. It can be seen that the ideal of a world where the world is common. The spirit of linking the individual’s destiny with others, the country, and society has become the unceasing spiritual driving force of the Chinese nation.⁴⁷ This thinking of the world for the public and the common mind (tianxia weigong, datong sixiang) is the core axis set by the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO.

De Bary and Donnelly also criticize the notions of Chinese collectivism, Asian values, and even cultural relativism and argue that universal values such as human rights, which value individual rights and interests, and the values of harmony and social discipline in Chinese Confucianism are not incompatible. Although Asian axiology is a characteristic of Chinese Humanism and a major difference from the Western discussion of human beings, De Bary disagrees with the view of cultural relativism in its discourse that quotes Confucianism as a contradiction between “individual” and “community” and advocates Confucianism that does not mean giving up individual rights and subordinating to the community or the state;⁴⁸ instead, the Confucian concept is a deeper awareness of human interdependence and social feelings. Confucianism emphasizes a more balanced relationship between the individual, the community, and the state. It uses Confucianism to justify state power, often ignoring the connotation of Confucianism’s emphasis on harmony between the individual, society, and the state. De Bary portrays Chinese collectivism in terms of communitarianism, arguing that communitarianism is used to advocate a “statist” view of defending the state in the name of the entire people, often at the expense of the individual.⁴⁹

Furthermore, Svensson disagrees with cultural relativism, arguing that no culture or society is one but rather that there are often several conflicting value systems. Several distinctly different cultures or value systems exist within a nation-state, such as China, a pluralistic country. Cultural differences are respectable, but cultural relativism can easily become an excuse for any violence, not a feature of culture. Cultural relativism is untenable because it excludes any possibility of cross-cultural communication and dialogue. Furthermore, cultural relativism is criticized for ignoring the voices of the oppressed and disrespecting the victims of practical actions and policies.⁵⁰

Similarly, Shih and Zhou point out that commentators mostly think about cultural relativism and universalism in a dualistic way, but thinking beyond universalism and relativism is, in the final analysis, a relationship between the rulers and the ruled.⁵¹ Western notions of human rights become cultural hegemony, and Asian values may also be a means of centralized repression. In the case of universalism, Western values can be encompassed in or beyond universalism. On the other hand, the relativism of Asian values will also face the relative challenge of relativism to universalism.

From the “Humanistic Olympics” emphasized by the 2008 Beijing Olympics to the “concept of building a community with a shared future for humanity” emphasized in the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, China has practiced the Olympic motto of “faster, higher, stronger and together.” The arrangements at the 2022 BWO opening ceremony echo the collectivism discussed above that focuses on community and the country, especially One World, One Family, which reflects the traditional Chinese philosophy of “world for the public and world harmony”. (shijie datong, tianxia yijia) Ge analyzes how China’s concept of tianxia land under heaven or the world) has been appropriated into tianxiaism (tixia zhuyi) from a historical perspective. Ge refutes the concept of tianxia in Chinese history, a discourse full of “equality” and “harmony” worldview.

In contrast, tianxia refers to I/he, inside/outside, hua/yi Chinese/barbarian). In the ethnic consciousness are “I” (center) and “he” (frontier); In the cultural sense, there are “hua” (civilization) and “yi” (barbarism). In terms of political status, it is distinguished between respect (domination) and humility (obedience). The concept of tianxia is not without inside and outside, without me and you.⁵² Therefore, Ge uses utopia to refer to tianxia as an inconsistency between thought and reality. The Chinese “tianxia imagination” and “tianxiaism” were used as a critique of the concept of “international order” and as an alternative to “cosmopolitanism,” the ideal of human society that all human beings belong to the same spiritual community. Behind this lies the political background of the so-called China Dream, stemming from the rise of China and the pursuit of “world power.”⁵³ In any case, China’s concept of world harmony and the tianxia family is another idea that wants to replace cosmopolitanism, which shows that “Datong world, tianxia family”(datong shijie, tianxia yijia) is the opposite of patriotism and nationalism, so this discourse is inevitably criticized, especially the ancient Chinese tianxia order originally implied the distinction between China and yi (barbarian), internal and external, China’s tianxia transformed from cosmopolitanism to “nationalism disguised as cosmopolitanism.”⁵⁴ Continuing the previous Asian values and cultural relativism, “tianxiaism” has also been discussed because China differs from the “cosmopolitanism” in Western civilization. Western cosmopolitanism is mainly characterized by expansion. China’s tianxiaism is oriented toward peace and even suggests that China’s “tianxiaism” should become China’s unique diplomatic asset to replace the contemporary world nation-state system.⁵⁵

It is also a contradictory exposition formed by China’s emphasis on the connotation of collectivism when it put forward “World Harmony.” After all, cosmopolitanism does not necessarily promote a form of world government. However, it refers to more inclusive moral, economic, and political relations between nations and peoples. In other words, the world’s citizens are not citizens of every country but the whole world. Then, when achieving global citizenship, it is necessary to emphasize that the interests of the country and society are given top priority, which will inevitably show its contradictions, be difficult to practice, and be criticized as nationalist. This section discusses the ideological roots of Chinese humanism and its related debates, which we will analyze from the content of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO and explore the relevant discussions of humanism at the BWO.

4. Discussion at the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO

The BWO opening ceremony reflected the humanist characteristics of collectivism as the main interpretation, such as the Olympic slogan and the theme of the BWO opening ceremony. The following is a debate on patriotism in the opening ceremony of the BWO, the construction of a community with a shared future for humanity in the One World, One Family, the contradictions between the two, and the debate between Chinese and Olympism in the opening ceremony of the BWO.

4.1. People-oriented patriotism

The 2022 BWO is also full of humanist discourse. In the opening ceremony’s Me and My Motherland, the largest performance of the opening ceremony, the director arranged for ordinary people, volunteers, and athletes from all walks of life to complete together to “increase the participation of the public and show the spiritual outlook of the Chinese people in front of the world today;” including the representatives of the 56 official ethnic groups who passed the national flag at the opening ceremony; passing the Chinese national flag symbolized the emotion and relationship between the people and the national flag. Of the 56 official ethnic groups, the Han ethnic majority constitutes over 90% of the population, and a list of 55 minority nationalities account for the rest.⁵⁶ On 4 February 2022, Xinhua stated that in the bridge of the national flag relay, the director also described this as a “common people hand in hand, it seems that there is no exciting performance, but the most direct to the hearts of the people – the greatness of the people, our country is made of our people.” The BWO also revolved around putting the people at the core but also toward uniting the people under the national flag of the Chinese collective. In addition, the opening ceremony also showed square dances by people aged 5 to 70, showing the spiritual outlook of the Chinese people and expressing the sincere feelings of ordinary people.

These ideas, such as propaganda and venues designed with Chinese culture and tradition, constantly reproduce national symbols and internally strengthen the collective imaginary community’s identity. The highest expression of patriotic elements in the opening ceremony of the BWO was the official opening ceremony, in which 12 children entered the venue with the national flag of the PRC, accompanied by a children’s trumpeter playing the melody of Me and My Motherland at the first opening. In China, representatives of all walks of life, exemplary figures, and 56 nationalities jointly passed on China. They slowly handed the national flag to the flag-raising platform to hand it over to the ceremonial soldiers. Finally, under the singing of the national anthem of the PRC, the five-star flag of China was raised. This arrangement echoes the Chinese humanist discourse, from respecting the differences between individuals to extending to the collective identification of nations and countries.

In addition to the people-oriented characteristics of the opening of the BWO, the entire BWO and the opening ceremony are also full of elements of traditional Chinese culture, which is also an opportunity for the Chinese government to showcase Chinese culture to the world. As mentioned earlier, the Chinese government created constructed traditions of making a collectivist country, and individuals need to prioritize the state’s rights before individuals, echoing the connotation of China’s state-centered collectivism in the BWO and the opening ceremony. Although Zhang Yimou pointed out that the 2022 BWO no longer needs to introduce China as much as the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the timing of the 2022 BWO, the design of the emblem, and the design and naming of venues all incorporate elements of Chinese culture.

The 2022 BWO opening ceremony was chosen for February 4, Lichun (beginning of Spring), coinciding with the first 24 solar terms in the Chinese lunar calendar. On the evening of the opening ceremony, the National Stadium, the event venue, had a huge “Fu” (blessing) character on the floor, and square dance performances were arranged to welcome VIPs worldwide. Regarding time, the BWO chose to take place during the Lunar New Year. It opened with 24 solar terms at the opening ceremony, welcoming the arrival of the Winter Olympics with the lively atmosphere of the Chinese New Year. Then, the design of the Olympic emblem also combines Chinese cultural elements, especially the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO. The Olympic Games are full of emblem symbols, and the emblem’s design integrates Chinese elements with the artistic form of Chinese calligraphy. In addition, the Olympic competition venues also include the concept of Chinese elements of Nasu design. For example, Shougang Ski Air is based on the Dunhuang mural “Feitian” as the design prototype, named “Snow Feitian”,(xuefeitian) the National Bobsleigh Center is displayed with the totem image of “Dragon,” also known as “Xue you long”,(xueyoulong) and the National Alpine Ski Center is named “Xue fei yan,” which is regarded as an auspicious bird in Chinese culture.⁵⁷ Chinese symbols are fully displayed, from the BWO to the ubiquitous emblems and venues in the opening ceremony.

Zhang Yimou said the BWO does not wear ancient costumes or tell the story of China’s 5,000 years. Every minute of the opening ceremony is full of Chinese culture. The overall creativity and innovation reflect the values and philosophical thoughts of the Chinese.⁵⁸ The opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO showed the cultural atmosphere of Chinese collectivism from this image full of Chinese culture, symbolizing the unity of all ethnic groups in China and surrounding the national flag.

4.2. A community with a shared future for humanity that is “one world and one family”

The opening ceremony of Beijing was divided into three themes: One World, One Family, showing China’s pursuit of world peace while showcasing the Olympic mission of “faster, higher, stronger and together,” and finally conveying the vision and expectations of the BWO with the concept of “Together to the Future.” In addition to the many Chinese cultural symbols and patriotic elements mentioned in the BWO, “One World, One Family” was another core axis of the opening ceremony.

Collectivism and communitarianism reflect the datongism of the world for the public in traditional Chinese culture, especially the philosophical concept of eliminating division and safeguarding the unity of the nation and the state. China still clearly displays China’s culture and traditions in the arrangement and design of the entire Winter Olympics. The BWO reminds us of China’s characteristics and existence. The design of the opening ceremony of the BWO shows the cores of China’s pursuit and yearning for world peace, the spirit and concept of more unity of the Olympic Games, and the construction of a community with a shared future for humanity regardless of country or race.

On the one hand, at the opening ceremony of the BWO, the athletes’ entry bridge, when it was the turn of the host team, China, accompanied by the melody of “Song the Motherland,” when all the athletes from all countries entered the field, the hands of 91 delegations gathered together the snowflake-shaped guide signs. The small snowflakes were combined into large snowflakes. The song Stronger and More Unity was played, symbolizing the unity of global humanity regardless of you and me. This “big snowflake,” which symbolizes human unity, finally flew on the earth against the ground, highlighting the community of human beings who live together on the earth in the opening ceremony speech of Cai Qi, chairman of the BWO Organizing Committee, mentioned:⁵⁹

Fourteen years ago, we lit the torch of the Beijing Olympic Games here, realized the century-old Olympic dream of the Chinese nation…, and witnessed China continue to write a new legend for the Olympic Movement…The Olympic Movement pursues faster, higher, and stronger and advocates greater unity. Its charm is to transcend differences and promote mutual tolerance and understanding. The BWO will show the world the resilience of humanity to overcome challenges and create a future together in the face of difficulties. Let us work together to write a new chapter in building a community with a shared future for humanity.

Humanity as a community is a cosmopolitan concept without borders. When the BWO embodies the universal values of faster, higher, stronger, and more united, they also incorporate the culture endowed by China.

On the other hand, the BWO also broke the image of only showing all ethnic groups in China and invited 76 young people from all over the world and different races and colors to enter the stadium in the second half of the opening ceremony, showing people of different ethnicities around the world on the ground on a large screen of solidarity, overcoming the epidemic and fighting for their dreams, and gradually transformed into Chinese and English characters of “together for a shared future,” in an attempt to convey that human beings walk hand in hand. A vision for the Future together.⁶⁰ Director Zhang Yimou also used the opening ceremony of “Tribute to the People” with John Lennon’s famous song Imagine, which promotes a world of war without borders, religions, and barriers and shows the smiling faces of people around the world with the music to encourage people to put aside their differences and unite to safeguard the earth jointly. The BWO conveys the concept of “One World, One Family” in traditional Chinese culture by condensing a community with a shared future for humanity.

4.3. The contradiction between “patriotism” and “one world, one family”

The opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO still does not depart from the characteristics of Chinese tradition and culture, uniting people of different ethnic groups in the national flag symbol to unite the cohesion of the people’s collective and national identity and strengthen the spiritual value of patriotism. At the same time, the opening ceremony of the BWO also used China’s traditional cultural methods to integrate the traditional Chinese spirit of “one world, one family” into the promotion of the universal values of “faster, higher, stronger, and together” of the Olympic Games. The spirit of world unity is a cosmopolitan concept. That is, human society knows no borders, human beings are citizens of the world, and no utopian society is divided by national boundaries.

The previous discussion discussed the contradiction between patriotism emphasizing national unity and cosmopolitanism. Patriotism appeals to nationalism, with the nation as the core of identity and even patriotic spiritual values. At the same time, cosmopolitanism is based on the fact that all human beings are citizens of the world and the earth, which shows that patriotism is essentially in conflict with the world. The opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, on the one hand, arranges the entire Olympic opening ceremony with the characteristics of Chinese culture and traditional meanings such as Chinese solar terms and symbols; on the other hand, the design of the opening ceremony emphasizes the implementation of the concept of unity and cooperation, which is in line with the construction of a community with a shared future for humanity.

De Bary and Svensson argue that cultural relativism can easily become an excuse for any violence, ignoring the voices of the oppressed; or as Shih and Zhou emphasize that Asian axiology is a relationship between rulers and ruled⁶¹and that tianxiaist of “One World, One Family” is suspected of “nationalism disguised as cosmopolitanism.”⁶² From this perspective, if we consider the humanist discourse of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO showed both China’s patriotic collectivism and cosmopolitanism and the two concepts are inherently incompatible.

5. Conclusion

This study discusses China’s concern for humanism. It considers the characteristics of humanism in China as interpreted at the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO. The 2022 Beijing Olympics face the challenge of the global pandemic of the new crown epidemic this century, coupled with the questioning of China’s genocide and the human rights record of the Peng Shuai incident in Western countries, led by the United States. These discussions related to human lives and humanities are related to this study.

A detailed study of China’s interpretation of humanism and the debate between humanism and universal values implies the philosophical thinking of traditional Chinese derived from China’s history and culture, emphasizing a collectivist spirit based on society, nation, and state. To maintain the collectivist social operation of society and groups, and traditional Chinese Confucianism, the principle of interaction with propriety, emphasis on human hierarchy, and individual responsibility are the basis for maintaining the harmonious operation of society. Such collectivism is portrayed as belonging to and embodying Asian value theory. In contrast to the West’s emphasis on individualism, there is a clear difference between the two, which is why the same is around human discussion. There is a huge gap between Chinese humanism and Western doubts about its human rights record. In any case, this study considers the debate behind the humanist debate, which extends to highlighting that humanism in China is characterized by collectivism and highlighting Asian values. These discourses of collectivism, Asian values, and cultural relativism were embodied in the two Olympic Games hosted by China.

This study examines this humanist debate by taking the content of the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO as an example, especially the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, which emphasizes Chinese tradition, culture, and patriotism. The opening ceremony’s theme is “One World, One Family” to build a community of human life. In this way, the contrast between the emphasis on “One World and One Family” and the “patriotism” that emphasizes the spirit of the nation-state shows the contradiction of Chinese humanism discourse, and even China’s tianxiaism based on its culture has been “disguised as cosmopolitan nationalism” criticism, the Chinese discourse argues that Asian value thinking has its special interpretation of humanism. In contrast, the West emphasizes the universality of individualism and human rights values, and the two form a dilemma that is difficult to intersect and dialogue.

In conclusion, this study focuses on Olympism Chinese humanism and the opening ceremony of the 2022 BWO, in which China uses cultural relativism and Asian axiology to deny the existence of universal values on the one hand and accepts universal values in Olympism originating from the West on the other. In China, in its special historical and cultural context, China selectively integrates the universal spirit of Olympism, and in this case, in the concept of Chinese humanism, does human society have the same goal and universal value of valuing diversity and inclusiveness? China’s Olympism, to its interpretation of Chinese humanism, extends to the slogan of the 2022 BWO, “One World, One Family,” showing its contradiction in the face of universal values. It is worth rethinking the importance of the BWO opening ceremony, Olympism, and Chinese humanism debates. In particular, China’s exposition on philosophical concepts such as cosmopolitanism and their application in large-scale sports events, and more importantly, the neo-Sinocentrism might be behind these Chinese concept expositions and how they affect the universal values and dialogs of the world.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Dong-Jhy Hwang

Dr. Dong-Jhy Hwang is a professor at the Graduate Institute of Physical Education at the National Taiwan Sport University. He is the book co-author of Sport, Revolution and the Beijing Olympics (2008). His research interests are sport and postcolonialism, Olympic study and sociology of sport.

Yi-Chun Huang

Dr. Yichun Huang has earned a PhD at the Graduate Institute of Physical Education at the National Taiwan Sport University. Her research interests are sport history and women in sport. She is a part-time assistant professor at NTSU.

Notes

1. “So Simple. How Exciting? ——Interview with Zhang Yimou, Chief Director of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the Double Olympic Games,” Xinhua Sports, January 7, 2022.

2. Brownell, “How China’s Two Olympic,” 28.

3. Congressional Research Service, “The Beijing 2022 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games: Issues for Congress,” Congressional Research Service, January 24, 2022.

4. Brownell, “How China’s Two Olympic,” 34.

5. Ibid., 35.

6. Bowen, “Document Analysis,” 27.

7. Morgan, “Conducting a Qualitative,” 70–72.

8. Bowen, “Document Analysis,” 32–33.

9. Chalkley and Essex, “Urban Development,” 372.

10. Alkemeyer and Richartz, “The Olympic Games,” 79.

11. Tan and Zhang, “An Interview with Zhang Yimou,” 2.

12. Chen and Cheng, “Exploring Zhang Yimou,” 52–53.

13. Chow, “Not One Less,” 367.

14. Smith, “Ode to Peace,” 28.

15. Arning, “Soft Power,” 525.

16. Nye, Soft Power, 5.

17. Leheny, “The Contents of Power,” 1–3.

18. Nye, Soft Power, X.

19. Leheny, “The Contents of Power,” 8–13.

20. Leibold, “The Beijing Olympics,” 11.

21. Ho, “Behind the Hyperreality Experience,” 1–5.

22. Ibid., 7–8.

23. Lee and Yoon, “Narratives of the Nation,” 956–966.

24. Ho, “Behind the Hyperreality Experience,” 1.

25. Encyclopedia Britannica, “Humanism,” 908.

26. Greenfeld, “Social Science.”

27. Brownell, “China and Olympism,” 51–61.

28. Ibid., 53.

29. See above 2. 24.

30. Ibid., 57–58.

31. Zhejiang Sports Bureau, “The Olympic Movement and the Humanistic Spirit,” April 2007, State General Administration of Sports.

32. Ibid.

33. Brownell, “How China’s Two Olympic,” 61–62.

34. Tomlinson, “Olympic Spectacle,” 590.

35. Lee and Yoon, Ibid., 960–961.

36. Jarvie, Hwang and Brennan, Sport, Revolution and the Beijing Olympics, 63–64, 95.

37. Hwang and Chang, “Sport, Maoism and the Beijing,” 4.

38. Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 15.

39. Ho, “Behind the Hyperreality Experience,” 11.

40. Svensson, “Debating Human Rights,” 47–48.

41. Donnelly, “Human Rights and Asian,” 86.

42. De Bary, “Ya zhou jia zhi yu ren quan,” 5–7.

43. Wu, “Zhong guo ren quan si xiang shi lüe wen hua chuan tong he dang dai shi jian,” 39–40.

44. Donnelly, “Human Rights and Asian,” 79–80.

45. Ibid., 78.

46. Wu, “Zhong guo ren quan si xiang shi lüe wen hua chuan tong he dang dai shi jian,” 34.

47. Ibid., 38.

48. De Bary, “Ya zhou jia zhi yu ren quan,” 161.

49. Ibid., 103.

50. Svensson, “Debating Human Rights,” 49.

51. Shih and Chou, “Chao yue pu bian zhu yi yu xiang dui zhu yi ren quan guan you guan bian lun de xing si,” 11.

52. Ge, “Dui tian xia de xiang xiang yi ge wu tuo bang xiang xiang bei hou de zheng zhi si xiang yu xue shu,” 5.

53. Ibid., 18–23.

54. Ibid., 19.

55. Ibid., 54.

56. Mullaney, Coming to Terms with, 1, 149.

57. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “The XXIV Winter Olympic Games Opened in Beijing, and Xi Jinping Attended the Opening Ceremony and Announced the Opening of the Winter Olympic Games,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, February 5, 2022.

58. “Zhang Yimou, Chief Director of the Beijing Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony: Every Minute of Chinese Culture Integrated into the Opening Ceremony Reflects Deeper Cultural Self-confidence,” CCTV, February 4, 2022.

59. “Cai Qi’s Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Winter Olympic Ceremony,” Beijing Daily Group, February 5, 2022.

60. See above 44.

61. Shih and Chou, “Chao yue pu bian zhu yi yu xiang dui zhu yi ren quan guan you guan bian lun de xing si,” 11.

62. Ge, “Dui tian xia de xiang xiang yi ge wu tuo bang xiang xiang bei hou de zheng zhi si xiang yu xue shu,” 19.