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Abstract
The relationship between international law and South African legal order has been much examined. However, that of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the South African legal system has not been seriously explored. Therefore, this article examines the status of the African Charter under the South African legal system. It adopts a doctrinal approach and analyses ss 231(4), 231(5) and 232 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 within the context of South African law and international human rights norms in Africa; and how South African courts have treated the African Charter. It finds that the African Charter has not been enacted into law under s 231(4), implying that it does not operate in South Africa and that South African courts have not seriously regarded the African Charter. Nonetheless, it argues that the Charter directly operates in South Africa under s 231(5) as a deemed Act and as customary international law under s 232. It further argues that the Charter as a deemed Act is inferior to the Constitution, maintains a co-ordinate status with other Acts implementing human rights treaties, higher in status than other Acts implementing other treaties and ordinary Acts. As customary international law, the Charter is inferior to the Constitution and statutes but higher than common law. Both the Charter as a deemed Act and as customary international law operate at the same time in South Africa. It concludes that the African Charter is a statute in South Africa and that South African courts have no choice but to apply it when required.
Disclosure statement
No conflict of interest was declared by the author.
Notes
1 R Gittleman ‘The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: A legal analysis’ (1982) 22 Virginia Journal of International Law 667.
2 Organisation of African Unity (OAU) (L) AHG/Dec.115 (XVI) Rev.1 and OAU (L) ‘Report of the Secretary-General on the Draft African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’; OAU CM/1149 (XXXVII) Annexe III: Draft African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; OAU CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5.
3 Communication 742/20 – African Freedom of Expression Exchange (Represented by FOI Attorneys) v Algeria para 40.
4 Ibid para 39.
5 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986) (1982) 21 ILM 58 (African Charter).
6 E de Wet ‘The reception of international law in the South African legal order’ in E de Wet, H Hestermeyer & R Wolfrum (eds) The Implementation of International Law in Germany and South Africa (2015) 23.
7 Ibid 23.
8 Ibid 23.
9 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993 (Interim Constitution). The Interim Constitution has been repealed.
10 De Wet (note 6 above) 23–4.
11 J Dugard ‘Kaleidoscope: International law and the South African Constitution’ (1997) 1 European Journal of International Law 77, 84.
12 Ibid 84.
13 L Chenwi ‘International human rights law in South Africa’ in E de Wet, H Hestermeyer & R Wolfrum (eds) The Implementation of International Law in Germany and South Africa (2015) 349.
14 J Dugard ‘The role of international law in interpreting the bill of rights’ (1994) 10 South African Journal on Human Rights 210.
15 Chenwi (note 13 above) 349.
16 See P Alston & R Goodman International Human Rights: Text and Materials (2013) 518.
17 Article 27(1).
18 Article 29(1). On maintaining parents, see M Adigun ‘The implementation of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Nigeria: The creation of irresponsible parents and dutiful children? (2019) 51 The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 320.
19 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (11 July 1990, CAB/LEG/24.9/49).
20 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (11 July 2003).
21 Treaty of the Southern African Development Community (17 August 1992, 32 ILM 116, 5 AJICL 418).
22 SADC Protocol on Gender and Development (17 August 2008).
23 Ibid arts 1(a), 1(c), 3(b), 4(1), 4(2), 7, 8(1), 8(4).
24 See Chenwi (note 13 above) 354.
25 African Commission ‘Concluding observations and recommendations on the first periodic report of South Africa, 31st ordinary Session’ (2005) (African Commission CO: South Africa), paras 16–17.
26 Ibid paras 20, 23 & 28.
27 Dugard (note 11 above) 84.
28 Berstein v Bester 1996 (2) SA 751 (CC).
29 Ibid para 133.
30 S v Makwanyane 1995 (3) SA 391 (CC).
31 Ibid para 35.
32 Government of the Republic of South Africa v Grootboom 2001(1) SA 46 (CC).
33 Ibid para 26.
34 Chenwi (note 13 above) 364.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 NJ Udombana ‘Shifting institutional paradigms to advance socio-economic rights in Africa’ (2007) LLD thesis University of South Africa 208.
38 F Viljoen International Human Rights Law in Africa 2 ed (2012) 538.
39 S v Williams 1995 (3) SA 632 (CC).
40 Ibid para 21.
41 National Commissioner of the South African Police Service v Southern African Litigation Centre 2015 (1) SA 315 (CC).
42 Hurilaws v Nigeria (2000) AHRLR 273 (ACHPR 2000).
43 Ibid para 39.
44 AZAPO v President of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 671 (CC).
45 Ex Parte Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly: In re Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC).
46 Bhe v Khayelitsha Magistrate 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC).
47 Samuel Kaunda v President of the Republic of South Africa 2005 (4) SA 235 (CC).
48 Hassam v Jacobs 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC).
49 Consolidated with Dawood v Minister of Home Affairs; Shalabi v Minister of Home Affairs; Thomas v Minister of Home Affairs 2000 (3) SA 936 (CC) para 29.
50 Volks v Robinson 2005 (5) BCLR 446 (CC) para 82.
51 RE v DH [2015] ZACC 18 paras 45–46.
52 Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC).
53 Ibid paras 97–103.
54 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 22 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331 art 2(1); De Wet (note 6 above) 27.
55 On monism and dualism, see MN Shaw International Law 9 ed (2021) 110; N Ndeunyema ‘The Namibian Constitution, international law and the courts: A critique’ (2020) 9 Global Journal of Comparative Law 271; M Adigun ‘The process of giving domestic effect to treaties in Nigeria and the United States’ (2019) 6 Journal of Comparative Law in Africa 85; G von Glahn & JL Taulbee Law Among Nations: An Introduction to Public International Law (2017) 168; M Dixon, R McCorquodale & S Williams Cases and Materials on International Law 6 ed (2016) 103; A Abass International Law: Text, Cases, and Materials 2 ed (2014) 304.
56 Abacha v Fawehinmi [2000] 6 NWLR (Pt 660) 228.
57 Ibid 288–289 paras G–B.
58 The Azanian Peoples Organization v The President of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 672 (CC) para 26; R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte Brind [1991] 1 AC 696, 761G-762D (HL); Pan American World Airways Incorporated v SA Fire and Accident Insurance Co Ltd 1965 (3) SA 150 (A), 161C; Maluleke v Minister of Internal Affairs 1981 (1) SA 707 (B), 712G-H; Binga v Cabinet for South West Africa 1988 (3) SA 155 (A), 184H-185D; S v Petane 1988 (3) SA 51(C), 56F-G; HR Hahlo & E Kahn The South African Legal System and Its Background (1968) 114; J Dugard & A Coutsoudis, ‘The place of international law in South African municipal law’ in J Dugard, M du Plessis, T Maluwa & D Tladi Dugard’s International Law: A South African Perspective 5 ed (2018) 72.
59 Salomon v Commissioners of Customs and Excise [1967] 2 QB 116.
60 Ibid 143.
61 In practice, the court refers to binding but unincorporated treaties and non-binding instruments more in human rights cases. See De Wet (note 6 above) 44.
62 Section 231(1).
63 (Adopted 22 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331 arts 54 & 56. See O Dörr & K Schmalenbach (eds) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary 2 ed (2018) 1015 (on art 54) & 1039 (art 56). On treaty interpretation, see C Lo Treaty Interpretation under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A New Round of Codification (2017).
64 Dugard (note 11 above) 83.
65 Government of the Republic of South Africa v Grootboom 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (CC) para 26.
66 See Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593 where recourse can be had to parliamentary debate to historically discover the intention of the legislature.
67 See A Burrows Thinking About Statutes, Interpretation, Interaction, Improvement (2018) xv.
68 In Nigeria, s 12 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 as altered by s 254C(2) of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Third Alteration) Act 2010 permits treaties on labour matters to directly operate in Nigeria.
69 In fact, comparative international law is now developing as a field of inquiry and as a tool of critical investigation. See A Roberts, PB Stephan, P Verdier & M Versteeg (eds) Comparative International Law (2018); A Roberts ‘Comparative international law? The role of national courts in creating and enforcing international law’ (2011) 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 57.
70 JFS Investment Ltd v Brawal Line [2018] 18 NWLR (Pt 1225) 495.
71 See De Wet (note 6 above) 23.
72 JD Mujuzi ‘The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the rights of women in Africa: South Africa’s reservations and interpretive declarations’ (2008) 12 Law, Democracy & Development 41, 42.
73 (Adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171.
74 (Adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3.
75 (Adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 4 January 1969) 660 UNTS 195.
76 (Adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13.
77 (Adopted 6 October 1999, entered into force 22 December 2000) 2131 UNTS 83.
78 (Adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85.
79 (Adopted 18 December 2002, entered into force 22 June 2006) 2375 UNTS 237.
80 (Adopted 13 December 2006, entered into force 3 May 2008) 2515 UNTS 3.
81 (Adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3.
82 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (adopted 25 March 2000, entered into force on 18 January 2002) 2171 UNTS 227.
83 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) 2173 UNTS 222.
84 Section 315(4)(b) of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution defines an existing law as any law that is in existence before it (the 1999 Constitution) came into force. Section 315(1)(a) provides that a law shall be deemed to be an Act of the national assembly only to the extent that the national assembly could have validly passed such a law under the 1999 Nigerian Constitution while s 315(1)(b) provides that a law shall be deemed to be a Law made by the House of Assembly only to the extent the House of Assembly could have validly passed such a law under the 1999 Nigerian Constitution. On the difference between ‘law’ and ‘Law’, see M Adigun ‘The status of customary international law under the Nigerian legal system’ (2019) 45 Commonwealth Law Bulletin 115.
85 B Akinrinade ‘Nigeria’ in D Shelton (ed) International Law and Domestic Legal Systems: Incorporation, Transformation, and Persuasion (2011) 448, 453.
86 Glenister v President of the Republic of South Africa 2011 (3) SA 347 (CC). On Glenister, see E Cameron ‘Constitutionalism, rights, and international law: The Glenister decision’ (2013) 23 Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 389.
87 Ibid para 103.
88 Ibid.
89 Ibid.
90 See Attorney-General v British Broadcasting Corporation [1981] AC 303, 354, per Lord Scarman.
91 L du Plessis ‘Interpretation’ in S Woolman & J Brickhill (eds) Constitutional Law of South Africa vol 2 2 ed (2013) ch 32; N Botha, ‘Justice Sachs and the interpretation of international law by the Constitutional Court: Equity or expediency?’ (2010) 25 South African Public Law 235, 236.
92 Salomon v Commissioners of Customs and Excise [1967] 2 QB 116.
93 Ibid 143.
94 South African Constitution, s 2.
95 Abacha v Fawehinmi (2000) vol 2 HRLRA (Human Rights Law Report of Africa) 1.
96 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) Act, Cap A9, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 2004.
97 Abacha v Fawehinmi (note 95 above) para 15.
98 It was in Oshevire v British Caledonian Airways Ltd [1990] 7 NWLR (Pt 163) 507 that the Nigerian Court of Appeal first held that a statute implementing a treaty is higher in hierarchy than one that does not.
99 Abacha v Fawehinmi (note 95 above) para 23.
100 This is also the position in Nigeria. See Abacha v Fawehinmi [2000] 6 NWLR (Pt 660) 228, 315–16. On the implication of constitutional supremacy over the African Charter with respect to derogation clauses, see AJ Ali ‘Derogation from constitutional rights and its implication under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ rights’ (2013) 17 Law, Democracy & Development 78. On constitutional review of treaties, see M Mendez ‘Constitutional review of treaties: Lessons for comparative constitutional design and practice’ (2017) 15 International Journal of Constitutional Law 84.
101 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) Act, Cap A9, LFN 2004.
102 Buvot v Barbuit (1736) 3 Burr 2016; Triquet v Bath (1764) 3 Burr 1478; West Rand Gold Mining Co v R (1905) 2KB 391; Trendtex Trading Corp v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] QB 529 [CA]; [2004] All FWLR (Pt 238) 776 [English Court of Appeal].
103 South Atlantic Islands Development Corporation Ltd v Buchanan 1971 (1) SA 234(C) 238; Nduli v Minister of Justice 1978 (1) SA 838 (A); Inter-Science Research and Development Services (Pty) Ltd v Republica Popular de Mocambique 1980 (2) SA 111 (T) 124; Kaffraria Property Co (Pty) Ltd v Government of the Republic of Zambia 1980 (2) SA 709 (E) 712, 715.
104 In England, see Ex Parte Pinochet (No 1), [2000] 1 AC 61, 90 & 98; 119 ILR 50, 87; In Canada see Reference Re Secession of Quebec (1998) 161 DLR (4th) 385, 399, 115 ILR 536; Reference re Exemption of US Forces from Canadian Criminal Law [1943] 4 DLR 11, 41; Reference re Ownership of Offshore Mineral Rights of British Columbia [1967] SCR 792, 43 ILR 93; Reference re Newfoundland Continental Shelf [1984] 1 SCR 86, 86 ILR 593 and Reference Re Powers to Levy Rates on Foreign Legations and High Commissioners’ Residences [1943] SCR 208. In New Zealand, see New Zealand Marine Steel Ltd v Government of the Marshall Islands [1981] 2 NZLR 1, 64 ILR 539 and Governor of Pitcairn and Associated Islands v Sutton [1995] 1 NZLR 426, 104 ILR 508. In Ireland, see Lord Advocate’s Reference No. 1 of 2000, 2001 SLT 507, 512; Horgan v An Taoiseach 132 ILR 407, 442. However, the position in Australia is hazy. See Potter v BHP Co Ltd (1906) 3 CLR 479, 495, 506–07 and 510; Wright v Cantrell (1943) 44 SR (NSW) 45; Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 and Chow Hung Ching v R (1948) 77 CLR 449. In Nigeria, see Ibidapo v Lufthansa Airlines [1997] 4 NWLR (Pt 498) 124, 150.
105 Azanian Peoples Organization (note 58 above).
106 The applicants relied on art 49 of the First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 31 art 50 of the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 85 art 129 of the Third Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 135 and art 146 of the fourth Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 287.
107 Azanian Peoples Organization (note 58 above) paras 26–32.
108 R O’ Keefe, ‘The doctrine of incorporation revisited’ (2008) 79 British Yearbook of International Law 1.
109 Adigun (note 84 above) 131.
110 R v Hape 2007 SCR 292.
111 Ibid 316 para 39.
112 Forcese in Adigun (note 84 above) 132.
113 Nevsun Resources Ltd v Araya [2020] 1 SCR 166.
114 Ibid 224 para 95.
115 De Wet (note 6 above) 37.
116 RC Slye ‘International law, human rights beneficiaries, and South Africa: Some thoughts on the utility of international human rights law’ (2001) 2 Chicago Journal of International Law 59, 67.
117 D Tladi ‘The interpretation and identification of international law in South African courts’ (2018) 135 The South African Law Journal 708, 712.
118 Udombana (note 37 above) 208.
119 O Motlhasedi & L du Toit ‘The impact of the African Charter and the Maputo Protocol in South Africa’ in VO Ayeni (ed) The impact of the African Charter and the Maputo Protocol in selected African states (2016) 215, 220; OC Okafor The African Human Rights System: Activist Forces and International Institutions (2007) 156–7.
120 See Constitution of the Republic of Benin (1990), preamble; Constitutional law of the Republic of Cape Verde, art 12; the Constitutional Law of Burkina Faso (1991) art 151; Constitution of the Central African Republic (1995) art 69; Constitution of Djibouti (1992) art 37; Fundamental Law of the Second Republic of Guinea art 79; Constitution of the Republic of Madagascar (1992) preamble; Constitution of the Republic of Mali art 116; Constitution of Mauritania art 80; Constitution of the Fifth Republic of Niger (1999) art 132; Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda (2003) art 190; Constitution of the Republic of Senegal (2001); and Constitution of the Fourth Republic of Togo (1992) art 50. With respect to the reception of international law, the reality goes beyond the dichotomy between dualism and monism. See P Verdier & M Versteeg ‘International law in national legal systems: An empirical investigation’ (2015) 109 American Journal of International Law 514; I Boerefijn, ‘International human rights in national law’ in C Krause & M Scheinin (eds) International Protection of Human Rights: A Text Book (2012) 631; T Finegan, ‘Neither dualism nor monism: Holism and the relationship between municipal and international human rights law’ (2011) 2 Transnational Legal Theory 477.
121 WA Schabas The Customary International Law of Human Rights (2021) 83–91.
122 Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) ICJ Reports (1985) 13 para 27.
123 North Sea Continent Shelf ICJ Reports (1969) 3 para 73.
124 Schabas (note 121 above) 76–80.
125 Ibid.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Muyiwa Adigun
Muyiwa Adigun, senior lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria