![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
This article explores the experiences of Nepalese highly skilled migrants who use temporary migration to the Gulf region as a stepping-stone to further migration to developed countries outside the region. Furthermore, we explore the factors that influence migrants’ trajectories by applying the aspiration–ability model to understand various migratory steps of the Nepalese stepwise migrations. Here, we distinguish between migrants’ aspirations, abilities and structural forces – in South Asia, the Gulf and outside the region – that can either enable or restrict their agency. We find that the countries in the Middle East have emerged as important destinations for Nepalese migrants. It is also argued that the receiving countries in the Gulf are not the most popular destinations for skilled migrants from Nepal. However, for many aspiring skilled migrants, these countries appear to be the most affordable or only available destination at a certain stage of their migration trajectories and professional careers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 The Gulf cooperation council countries (GCC) are Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and Bahrain.
2 This is one recent exception from this prevailing trend, exemplified by studies such as that of Limbu on ongoing mobility of Nepalese migrants in Qatar (2022).
3 For example, the webpage of the Nepalese Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility provides very useful information on migrations from Nepal. However, this source also focuses primarily on migrations of lower skilled migrants to the GCC, See www.ceslam.org.
4 For mere, see also www.ceslam.org
5 Indeed, wage differentials seem to be one of the most important explanatory factors that affect labour migrations in the region (Malla and Rosenbaum Citation2017; Ekanayake and Amirthalingam Citation2021).
6 The figures presented in this section do not distinguish skilled from unskilled migrants. UN’s Population Division only provides data on total migrant stock provided. However, we believe that our outline of the general trends would suffice as the main ambition with the figures is to contextualise Nepalese imaginaries of different country tiers and general hierarchies of places among Nepalese migrants.
7 The figures in this section are based on estimates from the reputable sources such as the World Bank and UN’s Population Division and the International Organization for Migration, which are combined with estimates reported by Nepalese missions abroad. It should be noted that there are variations in numbers of migrants, wages and costs of migrations in different data sources. They are only estimates and should be used with caution.
8 The figure is the authors' compilation. GDP shows World Bank's data from 2019 on GDP per capita (PPP based), which is GDP converted to US dollars using purchasing power parity rates and divided by the total population. The numbers of Nepalese immigrants in India are based on UN estimates from 2019. The numbers of Nepalese migrants in other countries are based on UN's population data and the numbers reported by Nepalese missions abroad. See IOM (2019, 39); see also https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrantstock and https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD.
9 The figure is the authors’ compilation. The costs of migration and earnings are estimates in US dollars, as reported by Nepalese missions abroad. Source: IOM (Citation2019).
10 The figure is the author’s compilation based on IOM and UN’s population data. See IOM (Citation2019) and https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock.
11 The number of Nepalese in the USA has increased since 2010. For more, see https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-nepalese-in-the-u-s
12 Most interviews were conducted electronically via internet using Skype, WhatsApp and other digital platforms. The interviews lasted approximately one hour and were conducted in Nepalese by four Nepalese research assistants.
13 Nepal imposes strong restrictions on the migration of female migrants to the GCC. Therefore, there are very few female labour migrants in the GCC.
14 Their perspectives are not presented explicitly in this article, but they were extremely helpful as we analysed the stories of the Nepalese skilled migrants.
15 Mohan worked for almost four years in Kuwait before he decided to migrate further to Canada. He returned first back to Nepal to get his paperwork in place, and then, he applied for a permanent residency for Canada via the high-skilled worker programme, where he resettled permanently.
16 At the time of the interview, Bishal was 34 years old and lived in the Netherlands.
17 As later indicated in the study, only one of our informants, Sumita, had to combine borrowed money with savings from the Gulf in order to migrate further to the Global North.
18 At the time of the interview, Suresh was 52 years old and lived in the USA.
19 Suresh repeatedly tried to migrate to the USA via the Diversity visa programme. He was eventually awarded the Diversity visa and migrated to the USA.
20 It is relevant to note here that in Saudi Arabia, as in other countries in the region, it is almost impossible to obtain permanent residence or citizenship. The Kafala system – a sponsorship-based migration regime in the region – stipulates that all labour migrants are temporary residents (Kamrava and Babar Citation2012; Valenta and Jakobsen Citation2016). Several researchers point out that the intermediate countries in the trajectories of stepwise migration are usually those that are relatively easy to enter but where it is very difficult to resettle permanently (Paul Citation2011; Carlos Citation2013).
21 For an overview see Montagna, della Puppa, and Kofman (Citation2021).
22 Onward migration in Europe was propelled and enabled by other factors, such as economic insecurity, employment opportunities, social networks, and the European passport which resembles findings from other studies on onward migrations in Europe (Montagna, della Puppa, and Kofman Citation2021; Mapril Citation2021)
23 Similar motivations are indicated in other studies, also among other Asian migrants in the region (see Carlos Citation2013; Ekanayake and Amirthalingam Citation2021; Limbu Citation2022).
24 The Canadian point system for skilled migrants ranks applicants primarily according to their age, education, language proficiency, work experience and adaptability. The highest-ranking applicants may apply for a residence permit. For more, see Https://www.visaexperts.com/canada-immigration/canada-points-system.aspx#
25 Australia is one of the largest destinations for international students, and it has become the most popular destination for Nepalese international students. Nepalese international students and their dependents are allowed to work in the country. They also have various pathways to permanent settlement in the country for certain categories of students, which adds to the popularity of Australia as a destination country for Nepalese.
26 For example, a husband gains a temporary residence in the top-tier receiving country as an international student, and his wife would be the family dependent. Although both could take postgraduate studies, instead, the family dependent focused entirely on paid work, while the student combined part-time work and studies. When the husband’s student visa eventually expires, the wife takes over and acquires an international student status, while the husband becomes the family dependent, if he has not managed to advance to other statuses.
27 Similar strategies are identified in Agn’s study on Nepalese international students in Australia (Ang Citation2022).
28 The role of Nepalese female international students in the migration process is pertinent to explore further for several other reasons; inter alia, it seems that their position as primary visa holder also has an impact on shifting gender roles and expectations in Nepalese families (Ghimire Citation2020; Ghimire and Barry Citation2020).
29 Wee and Yeoh (Citation2021, 107)
30 For more on migration abilities of low-skilled migrants in the region.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Marko Valenta
Marko Valenta is a professor at the Department of Social Work at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway. His main areas of research are international migrations and ethnic relations. His most recent publication is Bell, D. A., M. Valenta, and Z. Strabac. 2023. ‘Perceptions and Realities: Explaining Welfare Chauvinism in Europe.' Journal of European Social Policy.
Marianne Garvik
Marianne Garvik is an associate professor at the Department of Social Work at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway. Her main areas of research are international migrations and ethnic relations. Her most recent publication is Garvik, M., and M. Valenta. 2021. ‘Seeking Asylum in Scandinavia: A Comparative Analysis of Recent Restrictive Policy Responses Towards Unaccompanied Afghan Minors in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.' Comparative Migration Studies.