![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 TD Gill and others, Leuven Manual on the International Law Applicable to Peace Operations (Cambridge University Press 2017) 77.
2 ND White, ‘In Search of Due Diligence Obligations in UN Peacekeeping Operations’ (2020) 23 Journal of International Peacekeeping 203.
3 M Sossai, ‘The Privatisation of the Core Business of UN Peacekeeping Operations: Any Legal Limit?’ (2014) 16 International Community Law Review 405.
4 E Campbell and others, ‘Due Diligence Obligations of International Organizations under International Law’ (2018) 50 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 558, citing A Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (Oxford University Press 2006) 151.
5 See the debates over the application of Articles 6 and 7 of the ILC’s Articles on the Responsibility of International Organisations 2011 (ARIO 2011): A Sari, ‘UN Peacekeeping Operations and Article 7 ARIO: The Missing Link’ (2012) 9 International Organizations Law Review 77; C Leck, ‘International Responsibility in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Command and Control Arrangements and the Attribution of Conduct’ (2009) 10 Melbourne Journal of International Law 1; KM Larsen, ‘Attribution of Conduct in Peace Operations: The “Ultimate Authority and Control” Test’ (2008) 19 European Journal of International Law 509; T Dannenbaum, ‘Translating the Standard of Effective Control into a System of Effective Accountability: How Liability Should be Apportioned for Violations of Human Rights by Member State Troops Contingents Serving as United Nations Peacekeepers’ (2010) 51 Harvard Journal of International Law 113; Y Okada, ‘Effective Control Test at the Interface between the Law of International Responsibility and the Law of International Organizations: Managing Concerns over the Attribution of UN Peacekeepers’ Conduct to Troop-Contributing Nations’ (2019) 32 Leiden Journal of International Law 275.
6 M Zwanenburg, ‘Compromise or Commitment: Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Obligations for UN Peace Forces’ (1998) 11 Leiden Journal of International Law 229.
7 Ibid, 232.
8 ARIO 2011, Article 2(b). See also Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Between States and International Organizations or Between Organizations 1986, Article 2(1)(j).
9 Zwanenburg (n 6) 232.
10 ND White, ‘Security Council Mandates and the Use of Lethal Force by Peacekeepers: What Place for the Laws of War?’ in C Harvey, J Summers and ND White (eds), Contemporary Challenges to the Laws of War: Essays in Honour of Peter Rowe (Cambridge University Press 2014) 95.
11 L Muller, ‘The Force Intervention Brigade—United Nations Forces beyond the Fine Line Between Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement’ (2015) 20 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 359; A Gilder, ‘The Effect of “Stabilization” in the Mandates and Practice of UN Operations’ (2019) 66 Netherlands International Law Review 47.
12 Prosecutor v Tadic (1996) 105 International Law Reports 488.
13 White, ‘Security Council Mandates’ (n 10) 104–5.
14 UN Secretary-General’s Bulletin, ‘Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law’ UN Doc St/SGB/1999/13 (1999); M. Zwanenburg, ‘The Secretary General’s Bulletin on Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law: A Pyrrhic Victory’ (2000) 39 Military Law and the Laws of War Review 13.
15 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel 1994, Article 7.
16 R Freedman, N Lemay-Hebert and S Wills, The Law and Practice of Peacekeeping: Foregrounding Human Rights (Cambridge University Press 2021) 128–33.
17 B Oswald, ‘Detention by United Nations Peacekeepers: Searching for Definition and Categorisation’ (2011) 15 Journal of International Peacekeeping 119.
18 Freedman, Lemay-Herbert and Wills (n 16) 109–15.
19 D Shelton and A Gould, ‘Positive and Negative Obligations’ in D Shelton (ed), The Oxford Handbook on Human Rights Law (Oxford University Press 2013) 562.
20 Ibid, 565.
21 Ibid, 567–68.
22 Ibid, 579.
23 Ibid. Velasquez Rodriguez Case, Judgment of July 29, 1988, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 4 (1988).
24 Shelton and Gould (n 19) 582.
25 J Kulesza, Due Diligence in International Law (Nijhoff 2016) 11 for the further argument that due diligence is ‘a principle of international law’.
26 ILA Study Group on Due Diligence in International Law, ‘Second Report’, 12 July 2016, 32, citing Velasquez Rodriguez Case (n 23) para 172.
27 J Klabbers, ‘Reflections on Role Responsibility: The Responsibility of International Organizations for Failing to Act’ (2017) 28 European Journal of International Law 1136. See also J Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part (Cambridge University Press 2013) 218.
28 F Mégret and F Hoffman, ‘The UN as a Human Rights Violator? Some Reflections on the UN’s Changing Human Rights Responsibility’ (2013) 25 Human Rights Quarterly 314.
29 Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (1949) ICJ Rep 179.
30 Interpretation of the Agreement of March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt (1980) ICJ Rep 90.
31 G Verdirame, The UN and Human Rights: Who Guards the Guardians? (Cambridge University Press 2011) 71.
32 Ibid.
33 N Quenivet, ‘Binding the United Nations to Customary (Human Rights) Law’ (2020) 17 International Organizations Law Review 399.
34 M Shaw, International Law (Cambridge University Press, 7th edn 2014) 192.
35 Quenivet (n 33) 400.
36 Gill and others (n 1) 267–8.
37 ‘Operational authority’ has been defined by the UN as ‘[t]he authority transferred by the member states to the United Nations to use the operational capabilities of their national military contingents … to undertake mandated missions and tasks’, which in peacekeeping operations ‘is vested in the Secretary-General, under the authority of the Security Council’ involving ‘the full authority to issue operational directives’—UNDPKO and DFS, ‘Authority, Command and Control in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations’, 15 February 2008, para. 7.
38 Gill and others (n 1) 76–8, 83.
39 J Cerone, ‘Reasonable Measures in Unreasonable Circumstances: A Legal Responsibility Framework for Human Rights Violations in Post-Conflict Territories under UN Administration’ in ND White and D Klaasen (eds), The UN, Human Rights and Post-Conflict Situations (Manchester University Press 2005) 77.
40 For discussion of these functions see Gill and others (n 1) 150–3, 159, 176.
41 Ibid, 268, 273.
42 Human Rights Committee General Comment 31, ‘Nature of the General Legal Obligation on State Parties to the Covenant’, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 (2004) para 10.
43 Gill and others (n 1) 76, 78.
44 ILA Study Group (n 26) 8, citing, inter alia, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro) (2007) ICJ Rep, para 430.
45 White, ‘In Search of Due Diligence Obligations’ (n 2) 206.
46 Shelton and Gould (n 19).
47 Human Rights Committee, ‘General Comment No 36, Article 6: Right to Life’, UN Doc CCPR/C/GC/36 (2019) para 7.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid, para 21.
50 S Joseph, ‘Extending the Right to Life Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: General Comment 36’ (2019) 19 Human Rights Law Review 347.
51 IACtHR Series C No 146 (2006) para 155.
52 P Taylor, ‘Article 6: The Right to Life’ in P Taylor (ed), A Commentary on the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The UN Human Rights Committee's Monitoring of ICCPR Rights (Cambridge University Press 2020) 138, 145.
53 Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31, ‘The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on State Parties to the Covenant’, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 (2004) para 8.
54 Gilder (n 11).
55 B Oswald, H Durham and A Bates, Documents on the Law of UN Peace Operations (Oxford University Press 2010) 36.
56 See United Nations Peacekeeping Resources Hub <https://peacekeepingresourcehub.un.org/en/> accessed 15 March 2023.
57 UN Doc A/RES/49/37 (1995) para 47.
58 UN, Core Pre-Deployment Training Materials (CPTM) for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (2017) <https://peacekeepingresourcehub.un.org/en/training/pre-deployment/cptm/intro> accessed 15 March 2023.
59 Ibid, module 2.
60 Ibid, module 2, lesson 2.3 <https://resourcehub01.blob.core.windows.net/training-files/Training%20Materials/003%20CPTM-EN/003-076%20FINAL%20Lesson%202.3%20160517.pdf> accessed 15 March 2023.
61 UN Department of Peace Operations Handbook, ‘The Protection of Civilians in United Nations Peacekeeping’ (2020) <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/dpo_poc_handbook_final_as_printed.pdf> accessed 16 March 2023.
62 Ibid, chapter 4 on ‘leading on PoC’, which places responsibility on the ‘mission leadership’.
63 UN Doc S/RES/2436 (2018) para 1. See also Policy on the Protection of Civilians in United Nations Peacekeeping 2019 <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/poc_policy_2019_.pdf> accessed 16 March 2023.
64 UN DPPA-DPO, ‘Action for Peacekeeping: Highlights of Key Achievements’ (9 September 2019) <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/a4p_one_pager_-_progress_9919_1.pdf> accessed 16 March 2023.
65 UN Secretariat, ‘Special Measures for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse’, UN Doc ST/SGB/2003/13 (2003) Section 4 ‘Duties of Heads of Department, Offices and Missions’, para 4.1.
66 UN Doc S/RES/2272 (2016). See also Reports by UN Secretary-General on special measures for protection from SEA (UN Doc A/69/779) (2015), which contains over 40 measures aimed at strengthening the response of the UN to allegations of SEA. See also the creation of a Victims’ Rights Advocate <www.un.org/preventing-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse/content/victims-rights-advocate> accessed 16 March 2023.
67 UN Secretary-General Report, ‘Special Measures for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse’ UN Doc A/75/754 (2021) para 44.
68 Supplementary information to the report of the Secretary-General on special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and abuse, UN Doc A/75/754 (2021) section III B.
69 ‘Human Rights due Diligence Policy on United Nations Support to Non-United Nations Security Forces’, UN Doc. A/67/775-S/2013/110 (2013).
70 Ibid, para 1.
71 Ibid, para 3.
72 Ibid, para 2.
73 UN Conduct and Discipline Service (CDS), ‘CDS Liaises with Member States on Allegations of Misconduct involving their Uniformed Personnel’ <https://conduct.unmissions.org/who-is-involved> accessed 17 March 2023.
74 UN Doc A/75/754 (2021).
75 UN Doc A/74/705 (2020) para 16.
76 C. Ferstman, ‘Reparations for Mass Torts Involving the United Nations: Misguided Exceptionalism in Peacekeeping Operations’ (2019) 16 International Organizations Law Review 57 at 58–9.
77 Rules 4 and 5 <chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.un.org/en/ethics/assets/pdfs/ten_rules.pdf> accessed 7 December 2023.
78 Freedman, Lemay-Hebert and Wills (n 16) 128–33. See also the failure of the UN to take measures to prevent and respond to the careless introduction of cholera into the water supply—see A Cravioto, ‘Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti’ (4 May 2011).
79 ND White, ‘The Use of Weapons in Peace Operations’ in Stuart Casey-Maslen (ed), Weapons under International Human Rights Law (Cambridge University Press 2014) 228.
80 Oswald (n 17).
81 UN Doc S/RES/2155 (2014).
82 Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (Brahimi Report), UN Doc A/55/305-S/2000/809 (2000) paras 62–3; UNDPKO, ‘Capstone Doctrine: United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines’ (2008) 23–7; Report of the High Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations on Uniting our Strengths for Peace: Politics, Partnership and People, UN Doc A/70/95-S/2015/446 (2015) paras 87, 88, 91, 95, 213, 232, 264, 265, 289.
83 See Security Council Resolutions on the Protection of Civilians, starting with UN Doc S/RES/1265 (1999) and most recently UN Doc S/RES/2573 (2021).
84 H Willmot and S Sheeran, ‘The Protection of Civilians Mandate in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Reconciling Protection Concepts and Practices’ (2013) 95 International Review of the Red Cross 526.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid, 527.
87 For example: UN Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the DR Congo (MONUSCO); UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA); UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in Mali (MINUSMA).
88 Gilder (n 11) 51.
89 UN Secretary-General’s Bulletin (n 14).
90 Willmot and Sheeran (n 84) 527.
91 Ibid, 537.
92 See UN General Assembly Resolution, ‘Third Party Liability: Temporal ad Financial Limitations’, UN Doc A/RES/52/247 (1998).
93 See, for example, R. Freedman, ‘UN Immunity or Impunity? A Human Rights Based Challenge’ (2014) 25 European Journal of International Law 239.
94 UN, ‘Sexual Exploitation and Abuse Risk Management Framework’ (2017) <https://conduct.unmissions.org/sexual-exploitation-and-abuse-risk-management-framework> accessed 20 March 2023.
95 UN Peacekeeping, ‘Evaluation Framework’ <https://peacekeepingresourcehub.un.org/en/evaluation> accessed 20 March 2023.
96 Report of an independent review on sexual exploitation and abuse by international peacekeeping forces in the Central African Republic, UN Doc A/71/99 (2016) 3.
97 Ibid.
98 UN Peacekeeping, ‘Action for Peacekeeping (A4P)’ <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-for-peacekeeping-a4p> accessed 20 March 2023.
99 UN Peacekeeping, ‘Action for Peacekeeping: Declaration of Shared Commitments on UN Peacekeeping Operations’ <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/a4p-declaration-en.pdf> accessed 20 March 2023.
100 UN Doc S/RES/2436 (2018) paras 1 and 3.
101 See, for example, UN Secretary-General Report, ‘Shifting the Management Paradigm in the United Nations: Implementing a New Management Architecture for Improved Effectiveness and Strengthened Accountability’ UN Doc A/72/492/Add.2 (2018) especially paras 5, 6, 63, 65, 66 and 105 on risk management and accountability.
102 J Bonnitcha and R McCorquodale, ‘The Concept of Due Diligence in the UN Guiding Principles on Human Rights’ (2017) 28 European Journal of International Law 900.