The Chinese Conception of Cybersecurity: A Conceptual, Institutional, and Regulatory Genealogy

ABSTRACT

How does the Chinese government define cybersecurity? Security in the digital realm has gained increasing prominence in recent years, both within China’s domestic policy landscape and in its participation with global digital governance. However, the Chinese conception of this term is different from the Western one, and is embedded within the country’s distinctive political, economic and technological context. Drawing on Chinese government documents, this paper will trace the evolution of how successive generations of Chinese leaders have identified digital security concerns, and how they have deployed institutional, regulatory and policy tools to respond to them.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

¹ Myriam Dunn Cavelty, Cyber-security and threat politics: US efforts to secure the information age (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007), Lene Hansen and Helen Nissenbaum, ‘Digital disaster, cyber security, and the Copenhagen School’, International studies quarterly 53:4, 2009, pp. 1155–1175.

² Ben Buchanan, ‘Nobody but us: The rise and fall of the golden age of signals intelligence’, Hoover Institute Aegis Series Paper, 2017, Nicole Perlroth, This is how they tell me the world ends: The cyberweapons arms race (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2021).

³ ‘Central Leading Group for Internet Security and Informatization Established’, China Copyright and Media, 1 March 2014, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/03/01/central-leading-group-for-internet-security-and-informatization-established/.

⁴ Cyberspace Administration of China, Guojia wangluo kongjian anquan zhanlüe (National Cyberspace Security Strategy), December 27, 2016, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2016/12/27/national-cyberspace-security-strategy/.

⁵ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Strategy of Cooperation on Cyberspace, 1 March 2017, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2017/03/01/international-strategy-of-cooperation-on-cyberspace/.

⁶ National People’s Congress, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo wangluo anquan fa (Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China), November 7, 2016, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2016/11/07/cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china/.

⁷ Rogier Creemers, ‘Cybersecurity Law and Regulation in China: Securing the Smart State’, China Law and Society Review, forthcoming.

⁸ Barry Buzan, People, states & fear: An agenda for international security studies in the post- Cold War era, (Colchester, ECPR Press, 2008).

⁹ John Kay and Mervyn King, Radical uncertainty: Decision-making beyond the numbers (New York, WW Norton, 2020).

¹⁰ Adam Segal, ‘The coming tech cold war with China’, Foreign Affairs 9, 2020.

¹¹ Werner Zorn, ‘How China Was Connected to the International Computer Networks’, The Amateur Computerist 15:2, 2007, pp. 36–49.

¹² Zixiang Alex Tan, Milton Mueller, and Will Foster, ‘China’s New Internet Regulations: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back’, Communications of the ACM 40:2, 1997, 11–16.

¹³ James Griffiths, The Great Firewall of China: How to Build and Control an Alternative Version of the Internet (London, Bloomsbury, 2001).

¹⁴ China Internet Network Information Center. Di 49 ci “Zhongguo hulianwan-gluo fazhan zhuankuang tongji baogao (49th Statistical Report on the Development of the Chinese Internet), 2022, http://www.cnnic.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/202202/P020220318335949959545.pdf.

¹⁵ State Council, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo jisuanji xinxi xitong anquan baohu tiaoli (Computer Information System Security Protection Regulations of the People’s Republic of China), 18 February 1994, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1994/02/18/computer-information-system-security-protection-regulations-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china/.

¹⁶ Qiu, Jack Linchuan, ‘Virtual censorship in China: Keeping the gate between the cyberspaces”. International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4:1, 1999, 1–25.

¹⁷ State Council, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo jisuanji xinxi wangluo guoji lianwang guanli zanxing guiding (Provisional Management Regulations for the International Connection of Computer Information Networks of the People’s Republic of China), 1 February 1996, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1996/02/01/provisional-management-regulations-for-the-international-connection-of-computer-information-networks-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china/.

¹⁸ State Council, Hulianwang xinxi fuwu guanli banfa (Internet Information Service Management Rules), September 25, 2000, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2000/09/25/internet-information-service-management-rules/.

¹⁹ MII, MPS, MoC, and SAIC, Hulianwang shangwang fuwu yingye changsuo guanli banfa (Internet Surfing Service Business Venue Management Rules), April 3, 2001, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2001/04/03/internet-surfing-service-business-venue-management-rules/.

²⁰ State Council, Hulianwang shangwang fuwu yingye changsuo guanli tiaoli (Internet Surfing Service Business Venue Management Regulations), 29 September 2002, https://gkml.samr.gov.cn/nsjg/bgt/202211/t20221109_351522.html.

²¹ MPS, Jisuanji xinxi wangluo guoji lianwan anquan baohu guanli banfa (Computer In-formation Network International Interconnection Security Protection Management Rules), 30 December 1997, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1997/12/30/computer-information-network-international-interconnection-security-protection-management-rules/.

²² Rogier Creemers, Explaining Audiovisual Media Piracy in China. Media Control, Enforcement and Globalisation, PhD Dissertation, Maastricht University, 2012, https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/1621996/guid-3dae91cd-3547-423f-af8c-27d14064f427-ASSET1.0.pdf.

²³ Geremie Barme and Ye Sang, ‘The Great Firewall of China’, Wired, 1 June 1997, https://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/.

²⁴ National People’s Congress, Guanyu weihu hulianwang anquan de jueding (Decision Concerning Safeguarding Internet Safety), December 28, 2000, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2000/12/28/national-people’s-congress-standing-committee-decision-concerning-safeguarding-internet-safety/.

²⁵ Weishan Miao and Han Rongbin, ‘Modernization Planner, Authoritarian Paternalist, and Rising Power: Evolving Government Positions in China’s Internet Securitization’, Journal of Contemporary China, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2021.1985832.

²⁶ Central Committee, Guanyu jiaqiang xuanchuan sixiang gongzuo de tongzhi (Notice concerning Strengthening Propaganda and Ideology Work), 28 July 1989, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1989/07/28/ccp-central-committee-notice-concerning-strengthening-propaganda-and-ideology-work/; MPS, Guanyu shouji chakou haiwai jilai de fandong xuanchuanpin de tongzhi (Notice Concerning Capturing and Detaining Reactionary Propaganda Goods Sent in from Overseas), November 17, 1989, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1989/11/17/notice-concerning-capturing-and-detaining-reactionary-propaganda-goods-sent-in-from-overseas/.

²⁷ Griffiths, 2021, p. 39.

²⁸ Teresa Wright, ‘The China Democracy Party and the Politics of Protest in the 1980s–1990s’, The China Quarterly, 2002, 172, pp. 906–926.

²⁹ Marczak, Bill et al, ‘An Analysis of China’s “Great Cannon”’. 5th USENIX Workshop on Free and Open Communications on the Internet (FOCI 15), 2015, https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci15/foci15-paper-marczak.pdf.

³⁰ Id.

³¹ MII, Zhongguo hulianwangluo yuming guanli banfa (Management Rules for Chinese Internet Domain Names), 1 August 2002, http://kjt.gxzf.gov.cn/xxgk/zcyd/zcfg/t3119465.shtml.

³² State Council, Guanyu chengli guojia xinxihua gongzuo lingdao xiaozu de tongzhi (Notice concerning Establishing a Leading Group for National Informatization Work), 23 December 1999, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1999/12/23/state-council-general-office-notice-concerning-establishing-a-leading-group-for-national-informatization-work/.

³³ State Council, Guanyu chengli Guowuyuan Xinxihua Gongzuo Lingdao Xiaozu de tongzhi (Notice concerning Establishing the State Council Leading Group for Informatization Work), 16 April 1996, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/1996/04/16/state-council-general-office-notice-concerning-establishing-the-state-council-leading-group-for-informatization-work/.

³⁴ SILG, Guanyu jiaqiang xinxi anquan baozhang gongzuo de yijian (Opinions concerning Strengthening Information Security Protection Work), September 7, 2003, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2003/09/07/opinions-concerning-strengthening-information-security-protection-work/.

³⁵ MPS et al., Guanyu xinxi anquan dengji baohu gongzuo de shishi yijian (Implementation Opinions concerning the Information Security Multi-Level Protection System), 15 September 2004, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2004/09/15/implementation-opinions-concerning-the-information-security-multi-level-protection-system/.

³⁶ MPS et al, Xinxi anquan dengji baohu guanli banfa (Management Rules for Multi-Level Protection of Information Security), June 22, 2007, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2007/06/22/management-rules-for-multi-level-protection-of-information-security/.

³⁷ MPS, Hulianwang anquan baohu jishu cuoshi guiding (Regulations on Internet Security Protection Technology Measures), December 13, 2005, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2005/12/13/regulations-on-internet-security-protection-technology-measures/.

³⁸ National Information Security Coordination Group, Guanyu kaizhan xinxi anquan fengxian pinggu gongzuo de yijian (Opinions concerning Launching Information Security Risk Assessment Work), 5 January 2006, https://www.tc260.org.cn/front/postDetail.html?id=20140929105109.

³⁹ MIIT, Tongxin wangluo anquan fanghu guanli banfa (Telecommunications Cybersecurity Protection Management Rules), January 21, 2010, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2010/01/21/telecommunications-cybersecurity-protection-management-rules/.

⁴⁰ Zhao’s CV is available on http://www.cac.gov.cn/bgs/ldhd/xzr/jl/A0902010504index_1.htm.

⁴¹ Certification and Accreditation Administration et al., Guanyu jianli guojia xinxi anquan chanpin renzheng renke tixi de tongzhi (Notice concerning Establishing a National Information Security Product Certification and Licensing System), October 18, 2004, https://www.isccc.gov.cn/zxjs/gkwj/01/76852.shtml.

⁴² Chris Demchak, ‘Uncivil and Post-Western Cyber Westphalia: Changing Interstate Power Relations of the Cybered Age’, The Cyber Defense Review, 1:1, 2021, pp., 49–74.

⁴³ Kai-Fu Lee, AI superpowers: China, Silicon Valley, and the new world order, (London: Houghton Mifflin, 2018).

⁴⁴ Jonathan Sullivan, ‘A Tale of Two Microblogs in China’, Media, Culture & Society 34:6, 2022, pp: 773–783.

⁴⁵ Jonathan Hassid, ‘China’s Responsiveness to Internet Opinion: a Double-Edged Sword’, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 44:2, 2015, pp. 39–68.

⁴⁶ Rogier Creemers, ‘China’s Constitutionalism Debate: Content, Context and Implications’, The China Journal 74, 2015, pp. 91–109.

⁴⁷ MIIT, Guifan hulianwang xinxi fuwu shichang chengxu ruogan guiding (Some Regulations on Standardizing the Market Order for Internet Information Services), 30 November 2011, http://www.cac.gov.cn/2011–12/30/c_1111550424.htm.

⁴⁸ Daniel Lynch, ‘Xi Jinping Confronts the Network Society’, Modern China, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700421993392.

⁴⁹ Hillary Clinton, Remarks on Internet Freedom, 2010, https://2009–2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2010/01/135519.htm.

⁵⁰ Bill Clinton, Remarks at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University, 2000, https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/world/asia/030900clinton-china-text.html.

⁵¹ State Council Information Office, The Internet in China, 8 June 2010, http://www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/node_7093508.htm.

⁵² Hu Jintao, ‘Jianding buyi zou Zhongguo tese shehuizhuyi wenhua fazhan daolu, nuli jianshe shehuizhuyi wenhua qiangguo (Resolutely Walk the Path of Socialist Culture Development with Chinese Characteristics, Strive to Build a Strong Socialist Culture Country)’, Qiushi 2012/01, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2012/01/04/hu-jintaos-article-in-qiushi-magazine-translated/.

⁵³ Central Committee, Guanyu angqian yishixingtai lingyu qingkuang de tongbao (Report concerning the Present Situation in the Ideological Area), April 22, 2013, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2013/04/22/communique-on-the-current-state-of-the-ideological-sphere-document-no-9/.

⁵⁴ Hillary Clinton, ‘America’s Pacific Century’, Foreign Policy 189, 2011, pp. 56–63.

⁵⁵ David Sanger and Nicole Perlroth, ‘N.S.A. Breached Chinese Servers Seen as Security Threat’, New York Times, 2014, https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/nsa-breached-chinese-servers-seen-security-threat; Spiegel, ‘NSA Spied on Chinese Government and Networking Firm’, Spiegel International, 2014, https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-spied-on-chinese-government-and-networking-firm-huawei-a-960199.html.

⁵⁶ People’s Daily, ‘SIIO Vice-Director Wang Xiujun: Cybersecurity Is a Major Strategic Question’, May 18, 2014, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/05/30/siio-vice-director-wang-xiujun-cybersecurity-is-a-major-strategic-question/.

⁵⁷ Michael Swaine’, Chinese Views on Cybersecurity in Foreign Relations’, China Leadership Monitor 42, 2013, https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CLM42MS_092013Carnegie.pdf.

⁵⁸ Zhong Sheng, ‘To Defend “Freedom”, or to Defend “Hegemony”?’ People’s Daily Online, 2013, http://en.people.cn/90001/90780/91343/6879251.html.

⁵⁹ Zhao Zhoujian and Zhilian Xu’.Xinxi jishu fazhan qushi yu yishixingtai anquan (Information Technology Development Trends and Ideological Security)’, Hongqi wen’gao, 2014, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2015/01/01/information-technology-development-trends-and-ideological-security/.

⁶⁰ Zhang Feng, ‘MIIT Chief Engineer On China’s Cybersecurity Policy’, Sohu, May 29, 2014, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/06/02/miit-chief-engineer-on-chinas-cybersecurity-policy/.

⁶¹ Katharin Tai and Yuan Yi Zhu, ‘A historical explanation of Chinese cybersovereignty’, International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcab009.

⁶² Miao and Han, Modernization Planner.

⁶³ Rogier Creemers, ‘The Pivot in Chinese Cybergovernance: Integrating Internet Control in Xi Jinping’s China’, China Perspectives 2015/4, pp. 5–13.

⁶⁴ Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Guanyu banli liyong xinxi wangluo shishi feibang deng xingshi anjian shiyong falü ruogan wenti de yijian’ (Interpretation concerning Some Questions of Applicable Law When Handling Uses of Information Networks to Commit Defamation and Other Such Criminal Cases, September 6, 2013, http://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2013/09/06/interpretation-concerning-some-questions-of-applicable-law-when-handling-uses-of-information-networks-to-commit-defamation-and-other-such-criminal-cases/.

⁶⁵ NPC, ‘Guanyu jiaqiang wangluo xinxi baohu de jueding (Decision concerning Strengthening Network Information Protection), December 28, 2017, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2012/12/28/national-peoples-congress-standing-committee-decision-concerning-strengthening-network-information-protection/.

⁶⁶ For instance, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs hosted a UN-sponsored conference on ‘information and cyber security’ in Beijing in 2014. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/cebw//eng/zfgx/t1163561.htm.

⁶⁷ Jamie Horsley, Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator’, DigiChina, August 8, 2022, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/.

⁶⁸ State Council, Guanyu shouquan Guojia Hulianwang Xinxi Bangongshi fuze hulianwang xinxi neirong guanli gongzuo de tongzhi (Notice Concerning Empowering the Cyberspace Administration of China to Be Responsible for Internet Information Content Management Work), August 26, 2014, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/notice-concerning-empowering-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-to-be-responsible-for-internet-information-content-management-work/.

⁶⁹ NPC, Guanyu ‘Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo wangluo anquan fa (cao’an)’ de shuoming (Explanation concerning the ‘Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Draft)’, 24 June 2015, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/zfjc/zfjcelys/2017–02/20/content_2034944.htm.

⁷⁰ Xi Jinping, Zai wangluo anquan he xinxihua gongzuo zuotanhui de jianghua (Speech at the Work Conference for Cybersecurity and Informatization), April 19, 2016, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2016/04/19/speech-at-the-work-conference-for-cybersecurity-and-informatization/.

⁷¹ CAC, Guojia wangluo kongjian anquan zhanlüe (National Cyberspace Security Strategy), December 27, 2016, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2016/12/27/national-cyberspace-security-strategy/.

⁷² Creemers, forthcoming.

⁷³ National People’s Congress, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo geren xinxi baohufa (Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, August 20, 2021, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-personal-information-protection-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-nov-1–2021/.

⁷⁴ National People’s Congress, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shuju anquan fa (Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China), June 10, 2021, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-data-security-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china/.

⁷⁵ Rogier Creemers, ‘China’s emerging data protection framework’, Journal of Cybersecurity 8:1, 2022.

⁷⁶ Reuters, ‘Tesla cars barred for 2 months in Beidaihe, site of China leadership meet’, June 20, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/chinas-beidaihe-district-bar-tesla-cars-driving-july-local-police-2022-06-20/.

⁷⁷ Transpacifica, ‘Chinese IT Security Examiner Describes Review Process, Clarifies Status of Chinese Government Windows Edition’, June 6, 2017, http://transpacifica.net/2017/06/1963.

⁷⁸ Stella Chen and David Bandurski, ‘CNKI’s Security Problem’, China Media Project, July 6, 2022, https://chinamediaproject.org/2022/07/06/cnkis-security-problem/.

⁷⁹ Arendse Huld, ‘How Did Didi Run Afoul of China’s Cybersecurity Regulators? Understanding the US$1.2 Billion Fine ‘, August 2, 2022, https://www.china-briefing.com/news/didi-cyber-security-review-which-laws-did-didi-break/.

⁸⁰ Paul Triolo and Michael Hirson, ‘Didi debacle highlights weaknesses in regulatory coordination, but it’s not decoupling’, The China Project, July 12, 2021, https://thechinaproject.com/2021/07/12/didi-debacle-highlights-weaknesses-in-regulatory-coordination-but-its-not-decoupling/.

⁸¹ MIIT, MPS and CAC, Wangluo chanpin anquan loudong guanli guiding (Management.

Regulations for Security Vulnerabilities in Network Products), July 14, 2021, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2021–07/14/content_5624965.htm

⁸² CAC, Guojia wangluo anquan Shijian yingji yu’an (National Cybersecurity Incident Emergency Response Plan), January 10, 2017, http://wlaq.xjtu.edu.cn/info/1009/1013.htm.

⁸³ Mei Danowski, ‘Becoming a Cyber Superpower: China Builds Offensive Capability with Military, Government and Private Sector Forces’, working paper, on file with author.

⁸⁴ CAC, MIIT, Wangluo anquan chanye gaozhiliang fazhan sannian xingdong jihua (2021–2023 nian) (zhenqiu yijian gao) (Three-Year Action Plan for the High-Quality Development of the Cybersecurity Industry (2021–2023) (Draft for Solicitation of Opinions)), July 12, 2021, https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/open-solicitation-of-opinions-on-the-three-year-action-plan-for-the-high-quality-development-of-the-cybersecurity-industry-2021–2023-draft-for-solicitation-of-opinions/.

⁸⁵ Central Propaganda Department, Central National Security Commission Office, Zongti guojia anquan guan xuexi gangyao (Study Outline of the Comprehensive National Security Concept) (Beijing, Xuexi Chubanshe, 2022).

⁸⁶ Bonny Lin et al., ‘China’s 20th Party Congress Report: Doubling Down in the Face of External Threats’, CSIS, October 19, 2022, https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-20th-party-congress-report-doubling-down-face-external-threats.

⁸⁷ Adam Segal, ‘.

Chinese Cyber Diplomacy in a New Era of Uncertainty’, Hoover Institution, 2017, https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/segal_chinese_cyber_diplomacy.pdf

⁸⁸ David Kelly, ‘Seven Chinas: A policy framework’, CSIS, 5 February 2018, https://www.csis.org/analysis/seven-chinas.

⁸⁹ Ariel Levite et al., ‘Managing U.S.-China Tensions Over Public Cyber Attribution’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 28, 2022, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/03/28/managing-u.s.-china-tensions-over-public-cyber-attribution-pub-86693.

⁹⁰ Pangu Lab, ‘Bvp47 Top-tier Backdoor of US NSA Equation Group, Technical Details’, undated, https://www.pangulab.cn/files/The_Bvp47_a_top-tier_backdoor_of_us_nsa_equation_group.en.pdf.

⁹¹ The Stack, ‘China details custom offensive tools, says NSA hacked “tens of thousands of devices”’, September 5, 2022, https://thestack.technology/china-northwestern-polytechnical-university-hacked-nsa-tao/.

⁹² CVERC, ‘Meiguo NSA wangluo wuqi ‘yincha’ fenxi baogao (Analytical Report of the US NSA Cyber Weapon ‘SuctionChar’), ScienceNet.Cn, September 13, 2022, https://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2022/9/486116.shtm.

⁹³ Tristan Galloway and Baogang He, ‘China and Technical Global Internet Governance: Beijing’s Approach to Multi-Stakeholder Governance within ICANN, WSIS and the IGF’, China: An International Journal 12:3,2014, pp. 72–93.

⁹⁴ Lu Wei, Gongxiang de wangluo, gongzhi de kongjian (A Network Shared Together, A Space Governed Together), 23 June 2014, https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/06/23/a-network-shared-together-a-space-governed-together/.

⁹⁵ Jon Brookin, ‘Why ICANN Won’t Revoke Russian Internet Domains’, Wired, 5 March 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/why-icann-wont-revoke-russian-internet-domains/.

⁹⁶ Matt Burgess, ‘The Mystery of China’s Sudden Warnings About US Hackers ‘, Wired, 26 May 2022, https://www.wired.co.uk/article/china-us-hacking-accusations.

⁹⁷ Duncan Hollis and Kal Raustiala, ‘The Global Governance of the Internet’, Temple University Legal Studies Research Paper, 2022–17, 2022, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4197418.

⁹⁸ Dennis Broeders, Liisi Adamson, and Rogier Creemers’,Coalition of the unwilling? Chinese and Russian perspectives on cyberspace’., The Hague Programme for Cyber Norms Policy Brief, 1 October 2019, https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2967052/view.

⁹⁹ Matthew Erie and Thomas Streinz, ‘The Beijing Effect: China’s Digital Silk Road as Transnational Data Governance’, NYU Journal of International Law and Politics, 54, 2021, pp. 1–92.

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek [016.Vidi.185.200] (Project Title: The Smart State: Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and the Law in China).