Maritime China, sea temples, and contested heritage in the Indian Ocean

ABSTRACT

This article examines the complex interplay between heritage, cultural identity, and state power, as exemplified by the contested heritage discourse surrounding a sea temple and the Chinese cult of Guandi in Mauritius. The main temple of Guandi in Mauritius abound in aquatic and oceanic manifestations, which stand in sharp contrast with state-endorsed, land-based Guandi temples in China. This contrast suggests a distinct cultural identity of the Chinese society in the Southwest Indian Ocean region. As reflected in the narratives of both Mauritian and Chinese authorities, the temple and cult also figure prominently in the re-imagining of Mauritian nation building and China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative. Drawing on critical heritage studies and the revitalised academic focus on sea temples that revisits the overlooked maritime connectivity, this article demonstrates how a historically-forged transoceanic identity in the name of Guandi is being contested by the new processes of heritagisation initiated by the Mauritian and Chinese states and how appreciation of the maritime heritage of Chinese diaspora in the Indian Ocean can re-emerge when the interpretation of the cult shifts from its role as one component of Mauritian and Chinese national heritage to its unorthodox oceanic reinvention.

KEYWORDS:

• Guandi
• Mauritius
• transoceanic identity
• sea temples
• maritime heritage

Acknowledgements

I would like to extend gratitude to Edyta Roszko and Tim Winter for their insightful remarks, and to the anonymous reviewers and the editorial team for their invaluable suggestions and guidance. This work has been enriched by the stimulating discussions at two key conferences: “Archipelagic Memory: Intersecting Geographies, Histories and Disciplines” at the University of Mauritius (2022) and “Oceans and Empires: Sinophone Crossroads in Global Space and Time” at Penn State University (2023). I am particularly grateful to Rafal Pankowski, Natalia Sineaeva, and Ven. Yisu of Guan Gong Temple of USA for their generous support and expertise.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Literally ‘Shanxi-Africa’, as the term Jin is a shorten code for the province of Shanxi in China’s administrative taxonomy.

2. As Guan ascended in the Chinese pantheon, he achieved various official rankings, including Grand General (dajiangjun), Lord of Guan (gong), and ultimately Emperor of Guan (di).

3. The intrinsic numinosity of nature refers to the spiritual or sacred quality that is inherent in nature. The term ‘numinous’ was coined by Rudolf Otto to describe the experience of encountering the divine or sacred, which is simultaneously fascinating and terrifying, inviting and overwhelming, and beyond human comprehension. See also Sarbacker (2016).

4. Literally ‘wind and water’, fengshui is an ancient Chinese philosophical and environmental practice that involves arranging the environment to create balance and harmony, with the belief that it can affect the success, health, and happiness of individuals.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme [Grant agreement No. 802223].

Notes on contributors

Xuefei Shi

Xuefei Shi is a cultural anthropologist and development researcher, and a postdoctoral researcher at CMI (Chr. Michelsen institute), Norway. He has extensive research experience in the Southwest Indian Ocean and East Africa region, especially along the multiethnic Swahili coast, the great island of Madagascar, and the Mascarene Archipelago.