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ABSTRACT
In this paper, I explore the claim that the film Son of Man (2006) represents a story of “continuity between African culture and Christian faith”. While this statement implies a seamless connection between the two, I argue that the relationship is more complex and fluid. Rather than strict continuity, I propose that the film depicts a process of adaptation, where certain cultural elements are retained while others are discarded. Through analysis of cross-cultural audience responses to Son of Man, I investigate how faith meets with the South African landscape, considering historical and cultural contexts. This examination demonstrates that the film presents a complex relationship between culture and faith, challenging the notion of a straightforward continuity.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 West, “The Son of Man in South Africa?”, 4.
2 Edward Rommen quoted in Hesselgrave 1991:109,110.
3 West, “The Son of Man in South Africa?”, 4.
4 Kyeyune, “Shaping the Society”, 27.
5 SAHO, “Defining Culture, Heritage and Identity”.
6 Son of Man is described by Thabang Nkadimeng and Lloyd Baugh as being a “revolutionary text” that stands out in the115-year history of Jesus films.
7 West, “The Son of Man in South Africa?”, 4.
8 Ibid.
9 The amaXhosa are an indigenous tribe of South Africa, located in the Eastern Cape Province. IsiXhosa is also one of eleven official languages of South Africa.
10 Eklund, “Hot Jesus, Black Messiah”.
11 West, “The Son of Man in South Africa?”, 11.
12 Zwick, “Between Chester and Capetown”, 4.
13 John 1:14.
14 Cone, The Cross and the Lynching Tree, xv.
15 Reddie, Black Theology, xii.
16 Forrest, M. 1987. Christology from below: an examination of the black Christology of Takatso Mofokeng in the context of the development of black theology in South Africa and in critical relation to the Christological ethic of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. University of Cape Town.
17 Tshaka and Makofane 2010: 532.
18 Although Black Theology and Liberation Theology demonstrate varied ideologies, Black Theology in South is informed by a praxis of Liberation Theology. Scholars such as Simon Maimela, Robert G.Crawford, and Itumeleng Mosala critically highlight the nuances between the two.
19 Ibid: 536.
20 Rowland Citation1999: xiii.
21 Mosala 1987: 55.
22 Rowland Citation1999: 2.
23 Ibid.
24 Boesak Citation2015: 10.
25 Vellem Citation2017: 17.
26 Mofokeng, The Crucified Among the Cross bearers, op.cit., p20. 2. x
27 Ibid; x.
28 Ibid 34-5.
29 Kebaneilwe identifies how the commencement of Jesus' ministry functions for those who face challenges in society. 2016.
30 Ibid.
31 Maganizer 2010: 7.
32 Throughout the film this imagery of children with feathers are represented as angels or symbolically as the souls of the children who have been killed in the ongoing conflict.
33 O’Collins Citation1997: 5.
34 Hill 2017.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 Moore Citation1991: 43.
38 Giere, “This Is My World!”, 25.
39 For more of the relationship between Christianity and this Xhosa ritual see Thandisizwe R. Mavundla, Fulufelo G. Netswera, Brian Bottoman, & Ferenc Toth. ‘Rationalization of Indigenous Male Circumcision as a Sacred Religious Custom: Health Beliefs of Xhosa Men in South Africa.’ In. Journal of Transcultural Nursing. (Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publication), Vol. 20,Iss.(4). pp.395–404; Natasha Erlank. ‘‘Brought into Manhood’: Christianity and Male Initiation in the Early 20th Century.’ In. Journal of Southern African Studies. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), Vol.43,Oss. (2). pp.251–265; Luvuyo Ntombana. ‘Should Xhosa male initiation be abolished.’ In., International Journal of Cultural Studies. (London, England: SAGE Publications, 2011), Vol.14, Iss. (6). Pp.631–640.
40 Salem Press Encyclopedia 2020. Available from: https://eds-s-ebscohost-com.uoelibrary.idm.oclc.org/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=96328636-0079-4b4a-8156-9988875721f3%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=87321097&db=ers.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid., 27.
43 Matthew 3:13-17; cf. Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21–23.
44 uKwaluka is the Xhosa ritual of adult male circumcision. The ritual lasts anywhere from a few weeks to six months; it includes the removal of the foreskin as well as the passage from boyhood into manhood. The process is both a form of self-identification for the initiates and corporate identification of the community (Giere: 2013: 26).
45 Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, 22.
46 Giere, “This Is My World!”, 29.
47 Krietzer, Gospel Images.
48 Van Wyk Citation2002: 31.
49 The Zulu are the largest ethnic group in South Africa. With IsiZulu being South Africa’s most widely spoken language.
50 Mcotheli, N (2006) Ban circumcision schools. Daily Dispatch (East London), 4 September: 14; Myemana, A (2004) Should Christians undergo the Circumcision Rite? East London: 3 Eden Ministries; Luvuyo Ntombana. ‘Should Xhosa male initiation be abolished.’ in., International Journal of Cultural Studies. (London, England: SAGE Publications, 2011), Vol. 14, Iss. (6). pp.631–640.
51 Ellis and ter Haar, Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa, 51. In Ellis and Ter Haar (Citation2004), they interview an Evangelist Mukendi, who tells of his encounters with the spirit world, stating that the spirit world is a mirror of the material world.
52 Here “supernatural” and “spirit” are used interchangeably as referring to the invisible forces and worlds discussed in this section.
53 Ellis and ter Haar, “Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa”, 51.
54 Ibid. 54.
55 Ibid, 50.
56 Ibid. 50.
57 Ibid, 44; cf. 1 Cor. 8:5.
58 Pauw Citation1975: 66.
59 The participants who responded were mostly black South Africans, many of whom were closely familiar with the traditional coming of age ritual as displayed in Son of Man.
60 Laidler, P.W. (1922). Bantu ritual circumcision. Man 22: 1–30.
61 Definition available from: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/culture
62 Ibid.
63 Due to the nature of the audience’s context, Protestantism is used as the default in this chapter when referring to the Christian faith.
64 Mbiti 2015: 20.
65 These churches are ethnically mixed (black and white) and include denominations such as Presbyterian churches, Methodists, Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and Charismatic, Evangelical, and Pentecostal Churches. The AIC is predominantly black and includes Ethiopian churches, the Presbyterian Church of African, the African Methodist Episcopal Church and various Zionist churches (Ntombana 2015: 105).
66 Ntombana 2015: 106.
67 Nmah 2010: 490.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Victoria Omotoso
Victoria Omotoso is London born, of Nigerian ancestry, and raised in South Africa. Her cross-cultural intersectionality influences her research on the reception of the Bible and film.