Displacement, colonization, and domestic work: children’s institutions and German imperial settlement in the Polish territories of Prussia around 1900

ABSTRACT

Around 1900, Imperial Germany pursued expansion abroad and internal consolidation within its continental borders. Facing a resolute Polish national movement, Prussia, the dominant German power, sought to secure its majority Polish border region by changing the region's ethnic composition. Large estates were purchased, land was divided, and German families were settled in small and medium farms. Colonization, however, relied on Polish workers for land preparation and farm labor. To replace Polish workers in settler-villages with Germans, the state took up the example of Child Migration in the British Empire and supported the establishment of a network of Protestant institutions that used child welfare legislation to bring about 1,500 destitute urban children from urban centers to the border region and place them with German families. The article looks at the institutional practice of child displacement and the pan-imperial networks and trans-imperial borrowings that facilitated the use of children for colonization. It discusses specific cases of children and shows that they insisted on determining their future. The interconnections of places of internment, education, care, and work across Germany's continental empire reveal a social logic of colonization that combine repeated (dis)placement of children with child labor as a system of training and exploitation.

KEYWORDS:

• Child displacement
• imperial colonization
• settler colonialism
• children and childhood
• labor
• Imperial Germany
• Prussian Poland

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1 Some of the source material in this article were previously used by the author to make a different argument. See: Roii Ball, ‘Internal Colonization and Child Displacement in Prussian Poland before World War I’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 47, no. 4 (2021): 534–62.

2 Institute of Municipal History, Frankfurt am Main (Hereafter ISG-FRA), Magistrat V829, 122, ‘die für Posen designierte Kinder’; and Wohlfahrtsamt 960, 132 Verso.

3 The 1904 and 1907 inspection reports are in ISG-FRA, Magistrat V829 pp. 183ff., 218ff.; the marriage is documented in: Hessisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Wiesbaden (Hereafter HHStAW), Frankfurt Marriage Registry for 1917, Entry Nr. 269.

4 Carl Felsch’s report from 24 May 1909 is in ISG-FRA Wohlfahrtamt 960, 225–226; HHStAW, Frankfurt am Main Marriage Registry for 1917, Entry Nr. 269; Pastor Matthias in Neuzedlitz to Carl Flesch, head of the Frankfurt Poor Administration, 17 May 1909, ISG-FRA Wohlfahrtamt 960, 221–222.

5 On the lost institutional archives, see the correspondence from January to June 1940 in the Polish National Archives in Poznań (hereafter: APP), Konsystorz Ewangelicki w Poznaniu Nr. 8527 (unpaginated).

6 For a detailed discussion, see Roii Ball, Constructing the Imperial Frontier: Colonization, Migration, and the Built Environment in the Polish-German Borderlands, 1886–1914 (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2021), chapters 4–5.

7 David M. Pomfret, Youth and Empire: Trans-Colonial Childhoods in British and French Asia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), quote on p. 3.

8 Rebecca Swartz and Peter Kallaway, ‘Imperial, Global and Local in Histories of Colonial Education’, History of Education 47, no. 3 (2018): 362–67; Rebecca Swartz, Education and Empire: Children, Race and Humanitarianism in the British Settler Colonies, 1833–1880 (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2019).

9 Daniel Gerster and Felicity Jensz, ‘Global Perspectives on Boarding Schools in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, in Global Perspectives on Boarding Schools in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Daniel Gerster and Felicity Jensz (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2022), 1–36, quotes on pp. 3–4.

10 Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Tens and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies’, in Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History, ed. Ann Laura Stoler, Gilbert M. Joseph, and Emily S. Rosenberg (Durham and New York: Duke University Press, 2006), 23–70.

11 Judith Modell, ‘Rights to the Children: Foster Care and Social Reproduction in Hawaii’, in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 156–72, 157.

12 The literature on the Prussian Colonization Commission is vast, but mostly focuses on high politics from a national perspective. The central work on the commission remains Witold Jacóbczyk, Pruska Komisja Osadnicza 1886–1919 (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1976). For a reevaluation of Prussia's settlement policies in the context of global German expansion and German colonialism, see ; Dörte Lerp, Imperiale Grenzräume. Bevölkerungspolitiken in Deutsch-Südwestafrika und den östlichen Provinzen Preußens 1884–1914 (Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 2016); Sebastian Conrad, translated by Sorcha O’Hagen, German Colonialism: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2012 [2008]), settlers' numbers appear on 157.

13 Ball, Constructing the Imperial Frontier; Philipp Ther, Imperial Instead of National History: Positioning Modern German History on the Map of European Empires, in Imperial Rule, ed. Alfred J. Rieber and Alexie Miller (Central European University Press, 2004), 47–66; William W. Hagen, Germans, Poles, and Jews: The Nationality Conflict in the Prussian East, 1772–1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 85–95; Piotr S. Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (Seattle and London: Washington University Press, 1974), 105–80.

14 Lerp, imperiale Grenzräume. On the expulsion of Poles and Jews from Prussia in 1885/6 see Helmut Neubach, Die Ausweisungen von Polen und Juden aus Preußen 1885/86. Ein Beitrag zu Bismarcks Polenpolitik und zur Geschichte des deutsch-polnischen Verhältnisses (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1967); Matthew P. Fitzpatrick, Mass Expulsions in Germany, 1871–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), ch. 4–5.

15 On the transformation of National Liberal politics and the Heidelberg Declaration of 1884, see James J. Sheehan, German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), ch. 13.

16 See the detailed argument in the introduction to Ball, Constructing the Imperial Frontier. Also see Robert L. Nelson, ‘From Manitoba to the Memel: Max Sering, Inner Colonization and the German East’, Social History 35, no. 4 (2010): 439–57; ‘A German on the Prairies: Max Sering and Settler Colonialism in Canada’, Settler Colonial Studies 5, no. 1 (2015): 1–19. More broadly on German global empire making: Geoff Eley, ‘Empire by Land or Sea: Germany’s Imperial Imaginary, 1840–1945’, in German Colonialism in a Global Age, ed. Bradley Naranch and Geoff Eley (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014), 19–45. On liberal imperialists, see Matthew P. Fizpatrick, Liberal Imperialism in Germany. Expansion and Nationalism, 1848–1884 (New York and Oxford: Berghahn 2008). For the importance of North America for German liberals and colonialists see Jens Uwe Guettel, German Expansionism, Imperial Liberalism and the United States, 1776–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2012); Andrew Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South (Princeton University Press, 2010); Erik Grimmer-Solem, Learning Empire: Globalization and the German Quest for World Status, 1875–1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Janne Lahti, ed., German and United States Colonialism in a Connected World. Entangled Empires (London: Palgrave, 2021). On nationalizing empires, see Alexei Miller and Stefan Berger, ‘Introduction: Building Nations In and With Empires – A Reassessment’, in Nationalizing Empires, ed. Alexi Miller and Stefan Berger (Budapest: CEU Press, 2014), 1–30. About the immediate economic background for the colonization policy, see: Hannelore Bruchhold-Wahl, Die Krise des Grossgrundbesitzes und die Güterankäufe der Ansiedlungskommission in der Provinz Posen, in den Jahren 1886–1898 (PhD diss., University of Münster, 1980), 82–104, 116–29. On the politics of the land market see recently Daniel Benedikt Stienen, Verkauftes Vaterland: Die moralische Ökonomie des Bodenmarktes im östlichen Preußen 1886–1914 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2022).

17 See the resolution of the Social Democratic public meeting sent to the municipality on 8 December 1898, in ISG-FRA Magistrat V829, unpaginated. There the argument was against using Protestant children to Germanize the Catholic Polish region. The clearer anticolonial argument appeared in the SPD press, not in the resolution. See: ‘Frankfurter Waisen nach Posen’, Volksstimme, 9 November 1898. For more details on the criticism of the collaboration between the Frankfurt municipality and the Neuzedlitz institution and the wider impact of the SPD campaign, see Ball, ‘Internal Colonization and Child Displacement’. On the SPD position on colonialism, see Jens-Uwe Guettel, ‘The Myth of the Pro-Colonialist SPD: German Social Democracy and Imperialism before World War I’, Central European History 45, no. 3 (2012): 452–84.

18 Edward Ross Dickinson, ‘Citizenship, Vocational Training, and Reaction: Continuation Schooling and the Prussian “Youth Cultivation” Decree of 1911’, European History Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1999): 109–47; Derek S. Linton, ‘Who Has the Youth, Has the Future’: The Campaign to Save Young Workers in Imperial Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

19 On Prussian policies and the resistance to them, see: John J. Kulczycki, School Strikes in Prussian Poland, 1901–1907: The Struggle over Bilingual Education (Boulder, CO and New York: Columbia University Press, 1981); Lech Trzeciakowski, The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland, trans. Katarzyna Kretkowska (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1990). Kulczycki argues that the school strikes were a popular movement that was treated with suspicion by Polish elites, including the middle-class nationalists. On Roma and Sinti children and welfare laws, see Fitzpatrick, Purging the Empire Matthew P. Fitzpatrick, Mass Expulsions in Germany, 1871–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), ch. 7. Fitzpatrick’s evidence indicates that almost in every case of expulsion, children’s upbringing and the possibility of their removal from their families were major points of debate.

20 Dörte Lerp has fruitfully demonstrated how the framework of ‘imperial border regions' allows us to see together imperial strategies of settlement and racial labor management across Prussian Poland and German West Africa. Dieter Gosewinkel and Lora Wildenthal have shown that the debates around the legal definition of German citizenship that took place over a period of twenty years, beginning in the mid-1890s, were directly shaped by the acquisition of the overseas colonies and questions of racial mixing. See: Dörte Lerp, ‘Farmers to the Frontier: Settler Colonialism in the Eastern Prussian Provinces and German Southwest Africa’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41:4 (2013): 567–83; Imperiale Grenzräume; Dieter Gosewinkel, ‘Rückwirkungen des kolonialen Rasserechts? Deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit zwischen Rassestaat und Rechtsstaat', in Das Kaiserreich transnational, ed. Sebastian Conrad and Jürgen Osterhammel (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004), 236–256; Lora Wildenthal, ‘Race, Gender, and Citizenship in the German Colonial Empire’, in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997): 263–284; Idem, German Women for Empire, 1884–1945 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001); K. Molly O’Donnell, ‘Home, Nation, Empire. Domestic Germanness and Colonial Citizenship’, in The Heimat Abroad. The Boundaries of Germanness, ed. O’Donnell et al. (Ann Arbor: Michgan University Press, 2005), 40–57. On (mostly white) children in colonial Namibia, see Daniel Joseph Walther, Creating Germans Abroad: Cultural Policies and National Identity in Namibia (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2002), 54–55; Jakob Zollmann, ‘Children of Empire: Childhood, education and space in German Southwest Africa, c. 1880–1915’, Journal of Namibian Studies 17 (2015), 71–124.

21 Thomas Serrier, Posen-Ostmark-Wielkopolska: Eine Grenzregion zwischen Deutschen und Polen 1848–1914 (Marburg: Herder Institute, 2005), 165–7; Max Bär, Die ‘Bamberger’ bei Posen, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Polonisierungsbestrebungen in der Provinz Posen (Posen, 1882).

22 Dörte Lerp, Imperiale Grenzräume, 155–60; Elizabeth A. Drummond, ‘Protecting Poznania. German, Poles, and the Conflict over National Identity, 1886–1914’ (PhD diss., Georgetown University, 2004), ch. 6. The popular East Marches novels were inundated with racialized and gendered anxieties about male Germans ‘going native’, usually in the context of relationship with Polish women: Kristin Kopp, Germany’s Wild East: Constructing Poland as Colonial Space (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012), 57–95. On families and colonial anxieties: Susan Zantop, Colonial Fantasies. Conquest, Family, and Nation in Precolonial Germany, 1770–1870 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 99–162.

23 The quote from Bismarck’s 28 January 1886 speech is in Dörte Lerp, Imperiale Grenzräume, 157 (All translations are the author’s).

24 On paternalism and control, see Ball, Constructing the Imperial Frontier, ch. 1.

25 On further initiatives to ensure Germans’ reliability, see Jacóbczyk, Pruska Komisja, ch. 8; Scott M. Eddie, ‘The Prussian Settlement Commission and Its Activities in the Land Market, 1886–1918’, in Germans, Poland, and Colonial Expansion to the East, ed. Robert L. Nelson (New York: Palgrave 2009), 39–64; Elizabeth A. Drummond, ‘Durch Liebe Stark, deutsch bis ins Mark. Weiblicher Kulturimperialismus und die deutsche Frauenverein für die Ostmarken’, in Nation, Politik, und Geschlecht. Frauenbewegungen und Nationalismus in der Moderne, ed. Ute Planert (Frankfurt: Campus 2000), 147–64.

26 It is hard to come by clear evidence of the displacement of Polish workers during the transformation of estates into villages beyond official statisitcs. One indicative source is the account books of the estates, but few survive. See the account book of the Dolnik estate in county Flatow/Żłotow. It is possible that some of them found employment with the newly arriving settlers. GStA PK I HA. Rep. 212 Nr. 1219.

27 See the discussion of Polish workers in the commission’s festive annual report that marked twenty years of ‘cultural work’: Zwanzig Jahre deutscher Kulturarbiet, 1886–1906 (Berlin 1907), 147–50. For the pitfalls of Prussian use of language categories to define nationality, see Morgane Labbé, ‘Institutionalizing the Statistics of Nationality in Prussia in the 19th Century. From Local Bureaucracy to State-Level Census of Population’, Centaurus 49, no. 4 (2007): 289–306.

28 In 1906, the number of Polish residents in settlements ranged from as much as a half of the population in the oldest settlements to about a sixth in settlements established between 1900 and 1905, according to officials’ calculations. Jacóbczyk, Pruska Komisja, 117–25.

29 On attempts to recruit workers, see Jacóbczyk, Pruska Komisja, 117–25; Dörte Lerp, Imperiale Grenzräume, 103–108; Conrad, Globalization and the Nation, 189–202.

30 Uwe Plaß, ‘Überseeische Massenmigration zwischen politischem Desinteresse und Staatsintervention’, in Handbuch Staat und Migration in Deutschland seit dem 17. Jahrhundert, ed. Jochen Oltmer (Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2015), 291–316; Fizpatrick, Liberal Imperialism; Stefan Manz, Constructing a German Diaspora: The “Greater German Empire” 1871–1918 (Oxford: Routledge 2013), 51–97.

31 Ellen Boucher, Empire’s Children. Child Emigration, Welfare, and the Decline of the British World, 1869–1967 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 8, 34–43.

32 ‘Dr. Barnardo’s Homes: Colonization Scheme’, Library and Archives of Canada, First Central Registry series of the Immigration Program, 1892–1950, RG76, vol. 51, file 2209, part 1, C-4715.

33 Marjory Harper and Stephen Constantine, ‘Children of the Poor: Child and Juvenile Migration’, in Migration and Empire, ed. Marjory Harper and Stephen Constantine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), ch. 9; Roy Parker, Uprooted. The Shipment of Poor Children to Canada, 1867–1917 (Bristol: Policy Press 2008); Lydia Murdoch, Imagined Orphans. Poor Families, Child Welfare, and Contested Citizenship in London (New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008).

34 Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang 2004), ch. 1.

35 Karl Rathgen, ‘Auswanderungspolitik: Großbritannien’, in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, first supplementary volume (Jena: Gustav Fischer 1895), 170–72. This publication was followed by idem, Englische Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot, 1896), where child migration is discussed on pp. 109–13.

36 Anonymous, ‘Organisierte Auswanderung und Kolonisation’, Fliegende Blätter aus dem Rauhen Hause zu Hamburg-Horn: Organ des Central-Ausschusses für die innere Mission 52, no. 12 (Dec. 1895): 226–30. It is possible that the article was implicitly pointing to Ernst Hasse's earlier article in the Pan-German bulletin.

37 Ernst Hasse, ‘Die Besiedlung des Ostens durch Entlassung der großen Städte’, Alldeutsche Blätter, 29 September 1895. On the Pan-German League, see Roger Chickering, We Men Who Feel Most German. A Cultural Study of the Pan-German League 1886–1914 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984); Dennis Sweeney, ‘Pan-German Conceptions of the Colonial Empire’, in German Colonialism in a Global Age: Politics, History, and Culture, ed. Geoff Eley and Bradley Naranch (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014), 265–82. On Rathgen, see Eric Grimmer-Solem, ‘The Professors’ Africa: Economists, the Elections of 1907, and the Legitimation of German Imperialism’, German History 25, no. 3 (2007): 313–47, and in greater detail, idem, Learning Empire, chapters 1, 2, 9 and passim.

38 On Hugenberg’s pre-1914 career see Dankwart Guratzsch, Macht durch Organisation: Die Grundlegung des Hugenbergschen Presseimperiums (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Universitätsverlag, 1974), ch. 1; Heidrun Holzbach, Das ‘System Hugenberg’: Die Organisation bürgerlicher Sammlungspolitik vor dem Aufstieg der NSDAP (Stuttgart: Institut für Zeitgeschichte, 1981), 21–64. Hugenberg’s late father was a senior National-Liberal politician and an associate of Miquel’s, who used to be the mayor of Frankfurt before his appointment to the cabinet. On Miquel’s involvement in the establishment of the Neuzedlitz institution, see Ball, ‘Child Displacement’, 547.

39 President of the Colonization Commission to the Prussian cabinet, 9.7.1898. Prussian Secret State Archive [hereafter GStA PK] I. HA 87B Nr. 9568, 3–33. For the legal situation, see Heinrich Dernburg, Vormundschaftsrecht der preußischen Monarchie nach der Vormundschaftsordnung vom 5. Juli 1875, 3rd updated edition (Berlin 1886), 200–212.

40 Rathgen, Englische Auswanderung, 110.

41 See Hugenberg’s letters to the Prussian ministers of education, interior affairs, and public works and to the president of the provincial administration in Posen/Poznań, all sent on 10 December 1903. BA-Koblenz N1231/12, 359–373. On the deployment of Heimat and heimisch in colonialist discourse, see Jens Jaeger, ‘Colony as Heimat? The Formation of Colonial Identity in Germany around 1900’, German History 27, no. 4 (2009): 467–89; Eva Bischoff, ‘‘Heimischwerden Deutscher Art und Sitte:’ Power, Gender, and Diaspora in the Colonial Contest’, Itinerario 37, no. 1 (2013): 43–58.

42 For a partial list of grants, see GStA PK I. HA Rep 76 VII neu Sekt. 7A IV Nr. 7 (unpaginated). The grant from the German Emperor was discussed on 6 November 1903, 26 June 1905, and 4 July 1905. The district governments in Bromberg/Bydgoszcz and Poznania also granted monies to the institution, e.g. on 31 March 1904 and on 24 April 1906. A kingdom-wide collection of donations was approved by ministers on 16 June 1905.

43 For the lukewarm responses from Prussia’s western provinces to such pressures see: Interior Minister to provincial governments, 10 August 1898, and the reports back from the provinces in GStA PK I HA. Rep 87B Nr. 9568, 24–25ff.

44 Compare the division plan of the estate in GStA PK Rep 30 Nr. 1513 with the Colonization Commission’s file on landownership in the village in: APP-Gniezno, Komisja Kolonizacja, Reg. D II. Nr. 453a.

45 The 29 November 1902 inspection report is in ISG-Frankfurt am Main Magistrat V960, 163–175, with Hugenberg’s response on 176–177. Notably, Hugenberg refrained from challenging the inspection’s main findings about the institution.

46 ISG-FRA/M Magistrat V960, 163–175, 185ff. For the lack of foster families, see the orphanage’s 1903 and 1904 annual reports.

47 In the Gnesen/Gniezno County, for example, the Colonization Commission bought almost 34% of the entire agricultural area by 1907, while in Znin/Żnin it bought 24.5% of the agricultural land. For the commission’s priorities, see Zwanzig Jahre deutscher Kulturarbeit, p. 82; Lerp, Imperiale Grenzräume, 134ff.

48 This was the case in county Żnin/Znin, where a local pastor made the connection. ISG-FRA/M, Magistrat V960, 183ff. The analysis of children’s placement is based on the orphanage’s annual reports for 1897, 1899, and 1903–1912.

49 See the Neuzedlitz annual reports for 1902, 1905, 1906, 1912. One of the new institutions was set up by the German Women’s Association for the Eastern Marches in Bentschen/Zbąszyń. Drummond, ‘Weiblicher Kulturimperialismus’, 155.

50 ISG-Frankfurt am Main Magistrat V960, 163–175. On the terminology and social history of workers in peasant households, see Michael Mitterauer, ‘Gesindedienst und Jugendphase im Europäischen Vergleich’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 11, no. 2 (1985): 177–204.

51 ISG-FRA Magistrat V829 pp. 183ff, 218ff. Pastor Matthias in Neuzedlitz to Carl Flesch, head of the Frankfurt Poor Administration, 17 May 1909, ISG-FRA Wohlfahrtamt 960, 221–222.

52 For contractual conditions about children’s characteristics, see: Verwaltungsbericht des Magistrats der Stadt Berlin-Schöneberg (Berlin, 1899), 693; Verwaltungsbericht der Stadt Wilmersdorf 1908/1909 (Berlin, 1910), 126–27.

53 Die Evangeliche Schule in Neutecklenburg/Sobiesernie, APP-Gniezno 92/332/8.

54 According to the unpublished 1904 government report on children’s agricultural work in Prussia based on teachers’ information. See Annika Boentert, Kinderarbeit im Kaiserreich 1871–1914 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2007), Kinderarbeit, p. 401.

55 For a detailed discussion, see Ball, Constructing the Imperial Frontier, chs. 4–5.

56 Based on the orphanage’s annual reports for 1903, 1905, 1911 and ISG-FRA Wohlfahrtsamt V960, p. 182ff. For apprenticeship, see the provincial president in Posen to the Bromberg/Bydgoszcz regional government, 9.2.1915, listing twelve young men who received apprenticeship fees aid. APP-Gniezno, Witkowo County Commissioner, Nr. 8 (unpaginated).

57 County School Inspector Folz to the Frankfurt Poor Administration, 24.5.1897. ISG-FRA Magistrat V960 p. 8. On education to work, see Conrad, Globalization and the Nation, ch. 2.

58 Neuzedlitz annual reports for 1897, 1903, 1905, 1908, 1911, and the ‘Grundsätzen über die Verpflegung der Pfleglinge’, in GStA PK I. HA Rep. 87B Nr. 9568, 13–14.

59 First serialized in 1899 in the biweekly Das Land and in the daily Tägliche Rundschau, the text was later published as a pamphlet: Heinrich Sohnrey, Der Kleine Heinrich: Ein Waisenknabe aus dem Westen und eine Ansiedlergestalt aus der Deutschen Ostmark. Zur Erläuterung einer sozial-pädagogischen und nationalen Aufgabe des deutschen Volkes (Leipzig/Berlin, 1901). On Sohnrey see Georg Stöcker, Agrarideologie und Sozialreform im Deutschen Kaiserreich: Heinrich Sohnrey und der Deutsche Verein für ländliche Wohlfahrts- und Heimatpflege 1896–1914 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010).

60 Patrick Wolfe, ‘Nation and MiscegeNation: Discursive Continuity in the Post-Mabo Era’, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology 36 (October 1994): 93–152, 99–100.

61 See the important review article by Shino Konishi, ‘First Nations Scholars, Settler Colonial Studies, and Indigenous History’, Australian Historical Studies 50, no. 3 (2019): 285–304; Jane Carey and Ben Silverstein, ‘Thinking with and Beyond Settler Colonial Studies: New Histories after the Postcolonial’, Postcolonial Studies 23, no. 1 (2020): 1–20.

62 Robin D. G. Kelley, ‘The Rest of Us: Rethinking Settler and Native’, The American Quarterly 69, no. 2 (2017): 267–276, 269 (emphases in original).

63 Shannon Speed, ‘Structures of Settler Capitalism in Abya Yala’, American Quarterly 69, no. 4 (2017): 783–90.

64 Patrick Wolfe, Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race (Verso 2016), 33. Also see Patrick Wolfe, ‘Land, Labor, and Difference: Elementary Structures of Race’, American Historical Review 106, no. 3 (2001): 866–905.

65 Kelley, ‘The Rest of Us’, and in detail: Cedric J. Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

66 Elizabeth D. Esch, The Color Line and the Assembly Line: Managing Race in the Ford Empire (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); David R. Roediger and Elizabeth D. Esch, The Production of Difference: Race and the Management of Labor in U.S. History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

67 Rebecca Swartz, ‘Children In Between: Child Migrants from England to the Cape in the 1830s’, History Workshop Journal 91, no. 1 (2021): 71–90; idem, Education and Empire; Sarah E. K. Fong, ‘Racial-Settler Capitalism: Character Building and the Accumulation of Land and Labor in the Late Nineteenth Century’, American Indian Culture and Research Journal 43, no. 2 (2019): 25–48.

68 James R. Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision: A History of Native Residential Schools (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1996); David B. MacDonald, The Sleeping Giant Awakens: Genocide, Indian Residential Schools, and the Challenge of Conciliation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2019). On the U.S., see Preston McBride, A Lethal Education: Institutionalized Negligence, Epidemiology, and Death in Native American Boarding Schools, 1879–1934 (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2020).