India’s foreign intelligence history and future challenges

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Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1. The Official Secrets Act of 1923 – replacing an earlier act that dated from 1904 - although passed during the days of British rule, the act remains India’s primary anti-espionage legislation. It is unambiguous in stating that actions which assist an enemy state will be heavily penalized.

2. ‘Retired intelligence officers can no longer write memoirs without prior government permissions’.

3. The R&AW secretary is the head of the intelligence service and the additional and special secretaries – in charge of area desks or operations – report directly to the secretary. For more information, see: Prasannan, ‘Spies Rule the Roost’.

4. Pravin Sawhney’s work probes specific aspects of technology, arguing China is more advanced than India and future conflict with China will be largely shaped by artificial intelligence. Sawhney, The Last War.

5. Tewari, 10 Flashpoints, 0 Years, 45–47.

6. For examples of calls for professionalism and reform, see: Sood, ‘Intelligence reform or Perish’; Sood, The Unending Game, 268; IDSA Task Force Report, A Case for Intelligence Reforms in India.

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Notes on contributors

Ryan Shaffer

Ryan Shaffer has a PhD in history with expertise in extremism and security. He has published hundreds of articles and reviews in numerous journals. Shaffer is an editorial board member for the Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism. His books include African Intelligence Services: Early Postcolonial and Contemporary Challenges and The Handbook of African Intelligence Cultures. Shaffer recently published an article on ‘Counter-terrorism, intelligence and policing in Sri Lanka: A case study of the 2019 easter terror attacks’ in the Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism.