![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to study the evolution of Britain’s involvement in the EU’s foreign and security policy in order to highlight the reasons that led the issue to be left out of talks on the post-Brexit future relation. The paper argues Europeanisation or de-Europeanisation largely depends on the degree of politicisation of issues both in the EU, the EU-27 and in the UK. As long as foreign and security issues remained relatively low key, the UK was able to enjoy the magnifying effect of its participation in the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) and contributed to the decision-making process in order to successfully influence EU policies. Politicisation of foreign and security issues was due both to developments in EU-led or national initiatives and to the reaction they provoked in the UK. The EU insisted the UK was to be considered as a ‘third country’ and stressed the need for future cooperation to be institutionalised. On the contrary, in the UK, public distrust against a putative European ‘super state’, led successive governments to avoid any formal commitment to new EU initiatives.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Geddes, Britain and the European Union; George, An Awkward Partner.
2. Biscop, Differentiated Integration in Defence.
3. Le Drian and von der Leyen, “Revitalisation de la PSDC—Vers une défense au sein de l’UE globale, realiste et crédible”. http://www.france-allemagne.fr/article9346.html.
4. Macron, ‘’nitiative for Europe,” speech, La Sorbonne, Paris, September 26, 2017.
5. Matthijs, “Europe after Brexit,” 85–95.
6. Dijkstra, ‘UK and EU Foreign Policy Cooperation after Brexit’; Duke, Will Brexit Damage our Security and Defence?; Menon, “Don’t Assume CSDP will flourish without the UK”.
7. European Commission, Revised Political Declaration; HM Government, Technical Note: Consultation and Cooperation on External Security; May, speech, Lancaster House, London, 17 January 2017; May, speech, Republican Party Conference, Philadelphia, January 26, 2017.
8. Leruth, Gänzle and Trondal, ‘Differentiated Integration and Disintegration in the EU after Brexit’, 1383–1394; Schimmelfennig, ‘Brexit: Differentiated Disintegration in the European Union’, 1154–1173.
9. Chopin and Lequesne, “Differentiation as a Double-edged sword,” 531–545.
10. Schimmelfennig, “Brexit: Differentiated Disintegration in the European Union,” 1154–1173.
11. Whitman, “The UK and EU Foreign, Security and Defence Policy after Brexit”.
12. Martill and Sus, “Post-Brexit EU/UK security cooperation,” 848.
13. Barnier, Remarks at the press conference on the outcome of the EU-UK negotiations, December 24, 2020, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/speech_20_2533; Vale de Almeida, ‘Webinar: The EU-UK Relationship’, June 18, 2020, https://chathamhouse.soutron.net/Portal/DownloadImageFile.ashx?objectId=3949.
14. Radaelli, “The Europeanisation of Public Policy,” 30; Graziano and Vink, Europeanisation, 7.
15. Alecu de Flers and Müller, “Dimensions and Mechanisms of the Europeanisation of Member State Foreign Policy,” 19–35; Miskimmon, Germany and EU Foreign Policy; Smith, “Towards a Theory of EU Foreign Policy-Making,” 740–758; Wong, ‘The Europeanisation of Foreign Policy,” 134–153; Wong, “Foreign Policy,” 321–334.
16. Alecu de Flers and Müller, “Dimensions and Mechanisms of the Europeanisation of Member State Foreign Policy,” 19–35; Menon, “Empowering Paradise?” 227–246; Miskimmon, Germany and EU Foreign Policy; Smith, “Towards a Theory of EU Foreign Policy-Making,” 740–758.
17. Wong, The Europeanisation of French Foreign Policy; Gross, The Europeanisation of National Foreign Policy.
18. Smith, “Institutionalisation, Policy Adaptation and European Foreign Policy Cooperation,” 95–136.
19. Glarbo, “Wide-Awake Diplomacy,” 634–651.
20. Beyers, “Multiple Embeddedness and Socialisation in Europe,” 899–936; Checkel, “Social Construction and Integration,” 545–560; Wong and Hill, National and European Foreign Policies.
21. Moumoutzis, “Still Fashionable yet Useless?,” 619–624.
22. Bickerton, “Towards a Social Theory of EU Foreign and Security Policy,” 171–190.
23. Chryssogelos, “Europeanisation as de-politicisation,” 605–621.
24. Zürn, “Global Governance and Legitimacy Problems,” 260–287.
25. Ibid., 275–278.
26. Zürn, A Theory of Global Governance, chapter 6.
27. Kriesi, “The Politicisation of European Integration,” 32–47.
28. Kauppi, Palonen and Wiesner, “The Politification and Politicisation of the EU,” 72–90.
29. Hooghe and Marks, “A Postfunctionalist Theory of European Integration,” 1–23.
30. Zürn, “Global Governance and Legitimacy Problems,” 260–287.
31. Zürn, “The Politicisation of World Politics and Its Effects,” 64–66.
32. Zürn, “Global Governance and Legitimacy Problems,” 283–285.
33. Chryssogelos, “Europeanisation as de-politicisation,” 605–621.
34. Hill and Wallace, “Introduction : Actors and Actions,” 6.
35. Wallace, “Foreign policy and national identity in the United Kingdom,” 65–80.
36. Blair, “The new challenge for Europe,” speech, May 13, 1999.
37. Wendt, “Anarchy is what states make of it,” 400.
38. HM Government, Review of the Balance of Competences between the United Kingdom and the European Union: Foreign Policy, 87.
39. Howorth, “The Euro-Atlantic Security Dilemma,” 39–54.
40. House of Lords, Brexit: Common Security and Defence Policy missions and operations, 42.
41. French Republic and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Treaty between the UK and the French Republic for Defence and Security Co-operation, 2010.
42. Harrois, “Franco-British Defence and Security Cooperation after Brexit”.
43. Ricketts, “France and the UK’.
44. Therrien, “Aukus: France pulls out of UK defence talks amid row”.
45. Wintour, Chrisafis and Borger, “Biden admits to Macron the US was ‘clumsy’ in Aukus submarine deal”.
46. Stewart, “Donnez-moi un break”.
47. Shipman, “Time for Boris Johnson to serve up a new pact with France and Emmanuel Macron”.
48. Balzli, Jungholt, Schiltz, Tauber, “Kommissionschef Juncker fordert eine EU-Armee”.
49. Juncker, State of the Union Address, September 13, 2017.
50. EEAS, Global Strategy.
51. PESCO, “About”, https://pesco.europa.eu.
52. Gaskarth and Oppermann, “Clashing Traditions,” 84.
53. ”Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen: Germany will spend more on its military,” dw.com.
54. Clarke, Goodwin and Whiteley, Brexit.
55. Curtin, “The ties that bind”.
56. Martill and Staiger, “Cultures of negotiation,” 148–155.
57. Fallon, “Our Armed Forces—delivering security and opportunity,” speech, Conservative Party Conference, October 4, 2016. https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-text-michael-fallon-s-tory-party-conference-speech.
58. Chandler, “Rees-Mogg demands inquiry over civil servants ‘hoodwinking’ voters with ‘KitKat’ Brexit”.
59. Tolhurst, “’He’s in cuckoo land!’”.
60. Lockett, “’We need to defend ourselves’”.
61. Read, “UK could be dragged into EU army—even after Brexit”.
62. Tardy, “What third-country role is open to the UK in defence?,” 3.
63. HM Government, Foreign policy, defence and development.
64. EEAS, Global Strategy; HM Government, National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015.
65. Hill, The Future of British Foreign Policy; Wright, ‘Brexit and the Re-making of British Foreign Policy’.
66. Council of the EU, Directives for the Negotiations of a New Partnership with the UK, par. 127.
67. Ibid., par. 128.
68. Council of the EU, Consultations and Modalities for the Contribution of non-EU States to EU Civilian Crisis Management.
69. Sjursen, “Reinforcing executive dominance,” 331.
70. Ibid., 338.
71. Tardy, “CSDP: getting third states on board,” 3.
72. Ibid.
73. Council of the European Union, Council Decision (CFSP) 2017/2315 establishing permanent structured cooperation (PESCO), Annex III.
74. Fallon, ‘Our Armed Forces’, speech, Conservative Party Conference, October 4, 2016; May, speech, Lancaster House, London, 17 January 2017.
75. HM Government, Foreign policy, defence and development.
76. HM Government, Technical Note: Consultation and Cooperation on External Security.
77. May, speech, Munich Security Conference, February 17, 2018; HM Government, Framework for the UK-EU Security Partnership.
78. European Commission, Revised Political Declaration, par. 95.
79. Ibid., par. 98.
80. Ibid., par. 92–93, 100.
81. HM Government, The Future Relationship with the EU, par. 8.
82. Johnson, speech, Greenwich, February 3, 2020, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-speech-in-greenwich-3-february-2020.
83. HM Government, Global Britain in a Competitive Age.
84. Tertrais and Wright, “The UK’s Integrated Review”.
85. HM Government, Global Britain in a Competitive Age.
86. Johnson, speech, Munich Security Conference, February 19, 2021, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/prime-ministers-speech-at-the-munich-security-conference-19-february-2021.
87. Ricketts, “Prime Minister Outlines Vision for International Cooperation”.
88. HM Government, Global Britain in a Competitive Age, p. 18.
89. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, “Statement by NATO Heads of State and Government”.
90. Sabbagh, “US and UK intelligence warnings vindicated by Russian invasion”.
91. Sabbagh, “UK supplying Ukraine with anti-tank weapons, MPs told”.
92. European Commission, “REPowerEU : Joint European action for more affordable, secure and sustainable energy”.
93. Council of the EU, “EU support to Ukraine: Council doubles funding under the European Peace Facility”.
94. Council of the EU, “Versailles Declaration”.
95. Ibid.
96. European Commission, “Joint statement by the co-chairs of the EU-UK Joint Committee”.
97. European Commission, “Withdrawal Agreement: Commission sends letter of formal notice to the United Kingdom for breach of its obligations under the Protocol on Ireland and Northern Ireland”.
98. Borrell, “After Brexit, how can the EU and UK best cooperate on foreign policy?”.
99. Johnson, speech, Kyiv, April 9, 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pms-remarks-during-joint-clip-with-president-zelenskyy-9-april-2022