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Abstract
During the First and the Second World War, the international powers mobilised propaganda machinery that was employed to control the public opinion on allied, enemy, and neutral countries, such as Spain. Great Britain made important efforts to organise its propaganda activities through campaigns promoted by diverse organisations, channels, and thematic axes. The objective of this article is to analyse the British propaganda deployed in Spain during the First and the Second World War, studying the continuity patterns and outstanding particularities of the propaganda machinery, the channels employed, and the messages transmitted.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Qualter, Propaganda and psychological warfare, 27; Lasswell, Propaganda technique in the World War, 20; Bernays, Propaganda, 171.
2 Welch, Propaganda: power and persuasion, 2013, 4–16.
3 Pineda Cachero, “Un modelo de análisis”, 33; Taylor, Munitions of the mind, 5–8; and Welch, Propaganda: power and persuasion, 2.
4 Taylor, Munitions of the mind, 173–74.
5 Sanders, “Official British propaganda”, 3–6.
6 Welch, Propaganda: power and persuasion, 20.
7 On the British war propaganda machinery, see: Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda; Sanders, “Wellington House”; and McLaine, Ministry of Morale. On the position of Spain, the Anglo-Spanish relations, and the wars’ consequences, see: García Sanz, España en la Gran Guerra; González Calleja and Aubert, Nidos de espías; Romero Salvadó, España, 1914-1918; Payne and Contreras, España y la Segunda Guerra Mundial; Smyth, Diplomacy and Strategy, among others. The studies on British propaganda in Spain were the result of indirect studies. See, for example: Montero, “Luis Araquistáin”; Correa Martín-Arroyo, “Propaganda Wars”; Cole, Britain and the War; and Burns, Papá Espia.
8 Ponce Marrero, “Propaganda and politics”; González Calleja, “Nidos de espías”; Delaunay, “L’action Diplomatique”; Peñalba-Sotorrío, “Beyond the War”; Moreno Cantano and Peñalba Sotorrío, “Tinta Franquista”; Schulze Schneider, “La propaganda alemana ”; Pizarroso Quintero, Diplomáticos, Propagandistas, among others. Also, see: Barreiro Gordillo, “España y la Gran Guerra”; García Alix, La Prensa Española; García González, “Pawns in a Chess Game”; Albes, “La Propaganda cinematográfica” and Juliá Díaz, “La Nueva Generación”.
9 García Cabrera, “Filias y fobias en acción” and Bajo las zarpas del león.
10 Ponce Marrero, “Propaganda and politics”; González Calleja, “Nidos de espías”; Schulze Schneider, “La propaganda alemana ”; Pizarroso Quintero, Diplomáticos, Propagandistas, among others.
11 Ponce Marrero, “España en la Primera Guerra Mundial” 6–8.
12 Meaker, “A civil war of words” and Fuentes Codera, España en la Primera Guerra Mundial.
13 Fuentes Codera, España en la Primera Guerra Mundial, 170–72.
14 Rosenbusch, “Por La Patria” 20–21; Ponce Marrero, “Propaganda and Politics,” 198–301; Aubert, “La Propagande Étrangère” 114–15.
15 Ros Agudo, La guerra secreta; Morales Lezcano, Historia de la no beligerancia; Tusell Gómez, Franco, España, 102.
16 Schulze Schneider, “La propaganda alemana”, 371–86 y Moreno Cantano, “Los servicios de prensa”, 250–54.
17 Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda, 1914-18, 33-–35 and Messinger, British propaganda, 29–56.
18 “Second report on the Wellington House”, February 1916, INF 4/5, TNA; and “Third report on the Wellington House”, September 1916, T 1/11992, TNA.
19 Department of Information diagram, n.d., INF 4/1B; and Letter from the FO to Hardinge, 18 April 1918, FO 185/1526, TNA. Also, see: Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda, 57; Messinger, “An Inheritance,” 118; and Montero, “Luis Araquistáin,” 249.
20 McLaine, Ministry of morale, 30–40.
21 From W. McCann to FO, 1 August 1941, FO 371/26951; from McCann, 2 November 1943, FO 371/34766; from Cowan to Thomas Pears, 3 October 1939, FO 930/17; and Report on Cowan's position, 29 February 1940, FO 371/24526, TNA. Also: Cole, Britain and the War, 18; and Burns, Papá Espía, 116; 291.
22 Burns, Papá Espía, 88–100; Burns, The Use of Memory, 85.
23 Ponce Marrero, “Under propaganda fire”, 17.
24 Circular to consulates, 7 July 1917, TNA, FO 185/1436 and Romero Salvadó, España, 1914-1918, 156.
25 Letter from Stohrer, 11 February 1942, PAAA, RZ 501/R67661. Also see: Viñas, Sobornos, 272-–274 and Sáenz Francés, Entre la antorcha, 423-–424 and 440.
26 Cole, Britain and the war, 18; Burns, Papá espía, 116 and Note dated 7 March 1940, TNA, FO 371/24526.
27 From Sevilla to Hardinge, 23 August 1915, TNA, FO 185/1241.
28 Ibid.
29 Sanders and Taylor, British propaganda, 11–57 and McLaine, Ministry of morale, 4.
30 Cole, Britain and the war, 7–9
31 Ibid. Also see: letter from ambassador to MoI, 19 November 1940, TNA, FO 930/179 and letter from Bilbao, 16 July 1940, FO 369/2558.
32 Letter from Bilbao, 20 July 1915, TNA, FO 185/1240; Romero Salvadó, España, 1914-1918, 21 and Delaunay, «L’action diplomatique», 230.
33 “Budget for Spain December 1943 and November 1944”, December 1944, FO 371/34766, TNA. Also, see: Schulze Schneider, “La Propaganda Alemana,” 372–84; Ros Agudo, La Guerra Secreta, 292; Moreno Cantano, “Los Servicios de Prensa,” 304; Correa Martín-Arroyo, “Propaganda Wars,” 31; and Cole, Britain and the War, 110–15.
34 Aubert, “La propagande étrangère”, 128.
35 Cowan’s report on propaganda, 8 April 1940, TNA, FO 930/179.
36 “Report on the Wellington House”, June 1915, FO 371/2555; and Letter from W.H. to Graham, 20 January 1915, FO 371/2551, TNA.
37 From Keyser to Hardinge, 23 August 1915, FO 185/1241, TNA.
38 From Montgomery to Hardinge, 13 August 1915, FO 371/2566; From Claude Schuster to Lodock, FO 371/2574; From Whishaw, 29 December 1915, FO 185/1259, TNA.
39 From Pears to Cowan, 20 October 1939, FO 930/17; From Pears to Cowan, 2 November 1942, FO 930/20, TNA.
40 Letter from Ramón Pérez de Ayala, 21 December 1914, TNA, FO 185/1198; From Leopoldo Romeo to Hardinge, 2 January 1915 and Letter from López Valencia, 21 January 1915, TNA, FO 185/1251.
41 Letter from consul at Barcelona, 30 January 1940, TNA, FO 371/24510.
42 From Vaughan to Montgomery, 13 February 1916; From Vaughan to Montgomery, 22 February 1916, FO 185/1259. Also, see: Montero, “Luis Araquistáin,” 246-247; and Elizalde Pérez-Grueso, “Los Servicios de Información,” 239.
43 From E. Grey, 20 March 1916, FO 185/1260; From Madrid to Montgomery, 25 February 1916, FO 185/1266; and From Walter to Montgomery, 1 April 1916, FO 371/2826, TNA.
44 From Koppel to Montgomery, 24 March 1916, FO 371/2826, TNA.
45 From FO to Hardinge, 25 September 1916, FO 185/1263; From Smith to Hardinge, 21 March 1916, FO 185/1306. Also, see: Montero, “Luis Araquistáin”, addendum.
46 From Walter to Hardinge, 18 May 1918, FO 185/1469; From Gaselee to Hope Vere, 3 April 1918, FO 395/194. Also, see: Elizalde Pérez-Grueso, “Les Relations,” 34.
47 Memorandum, “Propaganda in Spain”, May 1918, FO 395/197; From Villiers to Hambro, 4 August 1918, FO 395/196; From Gale Thomas to Treasury, 4 June 1918, FO 395/195; and MoI Project, 24 May 1918, FO 185/1526, TNA.
48 Elizalde Pérez-Grueso, “Los Servicios de Información,” 239–45.
49 Report on the visit to Catalonia, 20 February 1940, FO 930/179; and Cowan's notes, 8 April 1940, FO 930/179, TNA.
50 Telegram to Hoare, 19 October 1940, FO 930/187; telegram sent to Lisboa, 14 October 1940; and telegram sent to Tangier, 20 October 1940, FO 930/18, TNA. Also: Burns, Papá Espía, 28–25; 116; 137–40.
51 From Adams to Kirk, 20 May 1941; From Leeper to Makins, 1 May 1941; and “Plan of political warfare in Spain”, 4 December 1942, FO 898/248; “Propaganda policy in case of contingencies”, 13 December 1942, FO 898/249; and “Preparatory plan in case of Civil War”, 17 July 1943, FO 898/25.
52 Telegram from Hoare, 7 June 1940, TNA, FO 930/18; Letter from Hoare, 21 October 1939, TNA, FO 371/23170.
53 “Distribution of pamphlets in Spain”, 24 February 1916, TNA, FO 371/2826 and From FO to the Chancellery:, 6 May 1916, TNA, T 1/11992.
54 “Wellington House activities”, 1918, TNA, INF 4/1B and From Montgomery to Vaughan, 24 May 1916, FO 185/1261. Also see: Tato, “Propaganda de guerra”, 63–74.
55 From News Department to Chancellery, 14 January 1918, FO 395/194; From Walter to Hardinge, 29 May 1917, FO 185/1345; “A short report on propaganda in Spain”, May 1917, FO 185/1440. Also, see: Sanders, “Wellington House,” 134–35.
56 García Alix, La prensa española, 24–34 y 49–59; and Vilanova y Arañó, Un mundo en guerra, 41–56.
57 Most of the publications can be found in: “General publicity material”, 1941–1945, from INF 2/1 to INF 2/7; and “Propaganda material in Spanish, 1942–1945”, INF 2/20, TNA.
58 From Hardinge to Ward, 24 December 1914, FO 185/1198; Report on the work done by “Wellington House”, July 1915, FO 371/2555; From the English College at Valladolid to Hardinge, 17 February 1915, FO 185/1251.
59 “OPC: Plan of propaganda in Spain”, 9 April 1943, FO 371/34764; “OEPEC: Propaganda October 1942-September 1943”, FO 930/25; and from Burns to MoI, 6 June 1944, FO 930/26, TNA. Also see: Correa Martín-Arroyo, “Propaganda Wars” 36.
60 Letter from Donovan, 17 February 1942, TNA, FO 930/19 and Telegram, 24 July 1942, FO 930/20.
61 From Montgomery to Hardinge, 26 March 1918, TNA, FO 185/1526.
62 From Walter to Montgomery, 22 December 1917, TNA, FO 395/119.
63 OPC, Propaganda in Spain, 20 October 1943, TNA, FO 371/34766 and Letter from Burns to Elizabeth Monroe, 15 February 1943, FO 930/20. Also see: Correa Martín-Arroyo, “Propaganda wars in wartime”, 44 and Burns, Papá espía, 259.
64 From News Department to Chancellery, 7 and 10 June 1916, FO 185/1262; and Note of Montgomery, 5 November 1916, FO 185/1264, TNA. Also, see: Sanders, “Wellington House,” 134–35; Aubert, “La Propagande Étrangère,” 146.
65 Memorandum from Pears, 16 November 1939, TNA, FO 371/23170 and Budget 1943–1944—preface, n.d., TNA, FO 930/29.
66 From FO to Hardinge, 31 July 1916, FO 185/1263; From De Orbe to Madrid, 19 August 1916, FO 185/1314; and letter from Montgomery, 6 April 191, FO 185/1260, TNA.
67 “OPC: Plan for propaganda in Spain”, 9 April 1943, FO 371/34764; From Burns to MoI, 1 July 1943, INF 1/574; From Wallace to Stewart, 10 January 1941, INF 1/593. Also, see: Cole, Britain and the War, 93; Burns, Papá Espía, 229–30.
68 García González, “Pawns in a Chess Game,” 417–18; Burns, Papá Espia, 292; 440–41; Martínez Nadal, Antonio Torres, 67–93; Cole, Britain and the War, 94.
69 Telegrams, from April to June 1942, HS 6/946; From D/Q to H.B, 19 February 1943, HS 6/967; and “Aguecheek”, 1943, HS 6/967, TNA. Also, see: Argemí Ballbè, “La Credibilitat”, 73–75.
70 Telegram, 21 March 1916, FO 185/1260; From Grey to Hardinge, 15 March 1916; and note from Grey, 26 March 1916, FO 185/1260, TNA.
71 Letter from Madrid to FO, 30 April 1945, TNA, FO 371/49646. Also see: Burns, Papa espia, 357 and Brenneis, Spaniards in Mauthausen, 85.
72 “Second report on the Wellington House”, 1 February 1916, INF 4/5; “Third report on the Wellington House, September 1916”, T 1/11992.
73 El arte de la mentira, n.d. [c. 1944], TNA, INF 2/20 and General propaganda material, 1943, INF 2/3.
74 For instance, British poster Los Aliados han roto las cadenas del bloqueo alemán [The Allies have broken the chains of the German blockade] described the Allies as liberators from the enemy sea blockade. See: Imperial War Museum, WM PST 13130, WM PST 13129 and WM PST 13125, n.d.
75 Circular to consulates, 7 July 1917, TNA, FO 185/1436.
76 “Second draft of Propaganda plan in Spain”, 6 April 1943, TNA, FO 371/34764.
77 “Plan Projection of Britain”, TNA, FO 898/413 and Cole, Britain and the war of words, 124-25.
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Marta García Cabrera
Marta García Cabrera, Historical Sciences Department, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; E-mail: [email protected]