https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4025-0939
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ABSTRACT
Over the last two decades, Peru has become a global piracy hotspot, eliciting surprise and concern among the international maritime community. Despite increased attention, Peru remains underexamined in maritime piracy research. In this case-study analysis, we brought together two research fields (e.g. maritime piracy and the natural resource curse) to investigate socio-historical factors that accounted for long-term trends in Peruvian piracy. The maritime piracy literature, which largely examines famous sites off the coasts of Africa and southern Asia, identifies several determinants, including state weakness, economic opportunity, and geography. Because Peru is a heavily extraction-dependent state, we also examined mechanisms of the natural resource curse. Considerable overlap in explanatory factors exist. While we found several determinants identified in the maritime piracy literature present in the Peru case, such as state weakness and social conflict, analyses also indicated that mechanisms of the natural resource curse, particularly commodity price volatility and rent seeking, are also positively related to piratical activity. Overall, our findings extend the maritime piracy and natural resource curse literatures and suggest that counter-piracy efforts in Peru critically examine extractive policies for latent effects.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Daxecker and Prins, The New Barbary Wars; Tumbarska, Maritime Piracy and Armed Robbery.
2. Kontorovich, A Guantanamo on the Sea.
3. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Maritime Safety Information.
4. Robitaille, ‘Maritime Piracy and International Trade’.
5. Boyle, Blood Ransom.
6. Tumbarska, ‘Maritime Piracy and Armed Robbery’.
7. Ibid.
8. IMB, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2016’; IBM, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2019’.
9. Dexacker and Prins, ‘Insurgents of the Sea’; Dexacker and Prins, ‘The New Barbary Wars’; Dexacker and Prins, ‘Searching for Sanctuary’; Denton and Harris, ‘The Impact of Illegal Fishing’.
10. Badeeb et al., ‘The Evolution’; van der Ploeg, ‘Natural Resources’.
11. Becker, ‘Crime and Punishment’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘Insurgents of the Sea’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘Searching for Sanctuary’.
12. Fluckiger and Ludwig, ‘Economics Shocks’.
13. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Enforcing Order’.
14. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Searching for Sanctuary’.
15. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Insurgents of the Sea’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘The New Barbary Wars’.
16. Denton and Harris, ‘The Impact of Illegal Fishing’.
17. Desai and Shambaugh, ‘Measuring the Global Impact’.
18. Denton and Harris, ‘The Impact of Illegal Fishing’.
19. Desai and Shambaugh, ‘Measuring the Global Impact’; C.f., Weldemichael, ‘Maritime Corporate Terrorism’.
20. Desai and Shambaugh, ‘Measuring the Global Impact’; C.f., Murphy, Small Boats, Weak States.
21. Mackay et al., ‘The Intersection’.
22. Obi, ‘Oil and Conflict’.
23. IBM, Gulf of Guinea.
24. Nwalozie, ‘Exploring Contemporary Sea Piracy’; Noland, ‘Guns, Oil, and Cake’; Obi, ‘Oil and Conflict’; Pristrom et al., ‘A Study of Maritime Security’.
25. Obi, ‘Oil and Conflict’.
26. Okafor-Yarwood et al., ‘Stable Seas’.
27. Noland, ‘Guns, Oil, and Cake’; Watts and Ibaba, ‘Turbulent Oil’.
28. Okafor-Yarwood et al., ‘Stable Seas’.
29. Onuoha, ‘Sea Piracy and Maritime Security’; C.f., Liss, Oceans of Crime.
30. Liss, ‘Maritime Piracy’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘Insurgents of the Sea’.
31. Hasting, ‘Geographies of State Failure’.
32. Hastings, ‘Geographies of State Failure’; Murphy, Small Boats, Weak States.
33. Murphy, Small Boats, Weak States.
34. Daxecker and Prins, ‘The New Barbary Wars’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘Searching for Sanctuary’.
35. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Enforcing Order’.
36. Hasting, ‘Geographies of State Failure’.
37. Percy and Shortland, ‘The Business of Piracy’.
38. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Financing Rebellion’.
39. Sachs and Warner, ‘Natural Resource abundance’.
40. Humphreys et al., Escaping the Natural Resource Curse.
41. Ibid, 4.
42. Badeeb et al., ‘The Evolution’.
43. Badeeb et al., ‘The Evolution’; Di John, ‘Is There Really a Resource Curse?’; Frankel, ‘The Natural Resource Curse’.
44. Corden and Neary, ‘Booming Sector and De-Industrialization’.
45. Sachs and Warner, ‘Natural Resource abundance’; C.f, Gylfason, ‘Natural Resources’.
46. Di John, ‘Is There Really a Resource Curse?’.
47. van der Ploeg and Poelhekke, ‘Volatility’.
48. van der Ploeg and Poelhekke, ‘Volatility’; C.f., Malik and Temple, ‘The Geography of Output’.
49. Humphreys et al., Escaping the Natural Resource Curse.
50. Badeeb et al., ‘The Evolution’.
51. Sachs and Warner, ‘The Big Push’.
52. Gylfason, ‘Natural Resources’; Sun et al., ‘Natural Resource Dependence’.
53. Torvik, ‘Natural Resources, Rent Seeking’.
54. Caselli and Cunningham, ‘Leader Behavior’; C.f., Robinson et al., ‘Maritime Piracy and International Trade’.
55. Mehlum et al., ‘Institutions and the Resource Curse’.
56. Lane and Tornell, ‘Power, Growth, and the Voracity’.
57. Ross, ‘What Do We Know’; Fearon and Laitin, ‘Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War’.
58. Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievance’.
59. Fearon and Laitin, ‘Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War’.
60. Mehlum et al., ‘Institutions and the Resource Curse’; Robinson et al., ‘Maritime Piracy and International Trade’.
61. Ross, ‘What Do We Know’; Ross, ‘Does Oil Hinder Democracy?’.
62. Ross, ‘Does Oil Hinder Democracy?’.
63. Farzanegan et al., ‘Natural Resource Rents’; C.f., Perez-Sabastian and Raven, ‘The Natural Resource Curse’.
64. Brunnschweiler, ‘Cursing the Blessings?’; Sachs and Warner, ‘Natural Resource Abundance’.
65. Coggins, ‘Global Patterns’; Coggins et al. ‘Maritime Piracy Data’.
66. Hastings, ‘Geographies of State Failure’; Worrall, ‘The Routine Activities’.
67. Daxecker and Prins, ‘The New Barbary Wars’; Daxecker and Prins, ‘Searching for Sanctuary’.
68. Badeeb et al., ‘The Evolution’; van der Ploeg, ‘Natural Resources’.
69. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Insurgents of the Sea’; Fluckiger and Ludwig, ‘Economic Shocks’.
70. Abell, ‘A Case for Cases’.
71. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’; Mauceri, ‘State Reform, Coalitions’.
72. Vergara and Watanabe, ‘Delegative Democracy Revisited’.
73. Barr, ‘The Persistence of Neopopulism’.
74. Latin America Digital Beat, ‘Toledo Becomes President’, 3.
75. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’.
76. Barr, ‘The Persistence of Neopopulism’.
77. McClintock, ‘A Left Turn’.
78. Observatory of Economic Complexity, ‘Peru Data’.
79. World Inequality Database, ‘Gini Index’.
80. Ponce and McClintock, ‘The Explosive Combination’; Aresti, ‘Mineral Revenue Sharing’.
81. Monge and Vaile, ‘Local Resource Curse’.
82. Arellano-Yanguas, ‘Aggravating the Resource Curse’.
83. McDonell, ‘The Co-Construction of Neoliberalism’.
84. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’.
85. Vergara and Watanabe, ‘Delegative Democracy Revisited’.
86. McClintock, ‘A Left Turn’.
87. Arce, ‘Political Violence’; Burgess, ‘Explaining Populist Party Adaption’; McClintock, ‘A Left Turn’.
88. McClintock, ‘A Left Turn’.
89. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’.
90. Drinot, ‘The Meaning of Alan Garcia’.
91. McDonell, ‘The Co-Construction of Neoliberalism’, 117.
92. Drinot, ‘The Meaning of Alan Garcia’; Hughes, ‘Indigenous Protest in Peru’.
93. Jong and Humphreys, ‘A Failed Social License’.
94. Lust, ‘Peru: Extractive Capital’.
95. Jong and Humphreys, ‘A Failed Social License’.
96. Schilling-Vacaflor et al., ‘Contesting the Hydrocarbon Frontier’.
97. Tanaka, ‘Peru’s 2011 Elections’.
98. Aviles and Rosas, ‘Low-Intensity Democracy’.
99. Tanaka, ‘Peru’s 2011 Elections’.
100. Aviles and Rosas, ‘Low-Intensity Democracy’.
101. Poole and Renique, ‘Peru: Humala Takes Off’.
102. Aviles and Rosas, ‘Low-Intensity Democracy’.
103. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’.
104. Poole and Renique, ‘Peru: Humala Takes Off’; Bedregal, ‘Works for Taxes’.
105. Sullivan, ‘Getting to the Bottom’.
106. Aviles and Rosas, ‘Low-Intensity Democracy’.
107. Dargent and Muñoz, ‘Peru: A Close Win’; Vergara and Encinas, ‘Continuity by Surprise’.
108. Rodriguez-Morata et al., ‘The Anomalous 2017’.
109. Durand, ‘The Odebrecht Tsunami’.
110. Taft-Mores, ‘Peru: Politics, Economy’.
111. IBM, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2016’.
112. IBM, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2016’; IBM, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2019’.
113. Mistler-Ferguson, ‘How Important is Peru’s Port’.
114. Riesenfeld, ‘How Organized Crime Corrupted’.
115. Perez, ‘Alternative Development’.
116. Walker, ‘Fire, Bandits Plague Amazon’.
117. Ibid.
118. Daxecker and Prins, ‘Enforcing Order’; Worrall, ‘The Routine Activities’; IBM, ‘Piracy and Armed Robbery, 2018’.
119. Stokes, Mandates and Democracy.
120. Dargent and Muñoz, ‘Peru: A Close Win’.
121. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’.
122. Dargent and Muñoz, ‘Peru: A Close Win’.
123. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’; Watts and Ibaba, ‘Turbulent Oil’.
124. Arellano-Yanguas, ‘Aggravating the Resource Curse’; Obi, ‘Oil and Conflict’.
125. Eaton, ‘Disciplining Regions’; Watts and Ibaba, ‘Turbulent Oil’.
126. Arellano-Yanguas, ‘Aggravating the Resource Curse’.
127. Okafor-Yarwood, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’; Watts and Ibaba, ‘Turbulent Oil’.
128. Drinot, ‘The Meaning of Alan Garcia’.
129. Brunnschweiler and Bulte, ‘The Resource Curse Revisited’; Cust and Viale, ‘Is There Evidence’.
130. Arellano-Yanguas, ‘Aggravating the Resource Curse’; Aresti, ‘Mineral Revenue Sharing’; Nwalozie, ‘Exploring Contemporary Sea Piracy’; Okafor-Yarwood, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’.
131. Obi, ‘Oil and Conflict’.
132. Denton and Harris, ‘The Impact of Illegal Fishing’.
133. Koch and Serkovic, ‘Piracy and Illegal Fishing’.
134. Denton and Harris, ‘The Impact of Illegal Fishing’.
135. Worrall, ‘The Routine Activities’.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Richard Dally
Richard Dally is currently a Ph.D. student in the Marine and Coastal Management and Science programme at Texas A&M University at Galveston. His dissertation research focuses on palaeo-flooding that is strongly associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) along the north coast of Peru and its impacts on the landscape and archaeological cultures in the region. Dally aims to provide new insights into how societies might have responded, adapted to, and recovered from catastrophic environmental changes. His other research interests include human ecodynamics, disaster resilience, flood mitigation strategies, hydrologic and hydraulic flood modelling, and geospatial analysis. He is recently exploring how to reconstruct the paleo-landscape from remotely sensed data for improved palaeo-flood modelling and to better understand complex dynamics between coastal archaeological cultures and extreme events along the arid north coast of Peru. Prior to joining the Ph.D. programme, Dally received his Bachelors in Maritime Studies from Texas A&M University at Galveston.
Jenna A. Lamphere
J. Lamphere is an Assistant Professor of Environmental Sociology and Coordinator for the Tourism and Coastal Community Development programme in the Department of Liberal Studies at Texas A&M University, Galveston. Lamphere’s research examines multilevel governance of socio-environmental transformations towards translocal sustainability. Her expertise emphasises mixed-methods and multistakeholder approaches to advancing just transitions, particularly as it relates to infrastructural solutions to climate change impacts. Lamphere is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Science, Technology, and Public Policy at the Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University and a member of the Future Earth System of Sustainable Production and Consumption Knowledge-Action Network. Dr. Lamphere is also a member of the United Nations U.S. World Ocean Assessment Pool of Experts and was a contributing author on the socio-environmental effects of maritime industries on coastal communities in the U.N. World Ocean Assessment II.
Elizabeth Nyman
Elizabeth Nyman is an associate professor of Political Science at Texas A&M University at Galveston. Her work revolves around international maritime politics, specifically considering offshore resources. Her specialities include international maritime law, polar politics, and marine environmental issues.