Grass-Fed and Non-Grass-Fed Whey Protein Consumption Do Not Attenuate Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Soreness in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Abstract

Eccentric muscle contractions can cause structural damage to muscle cells resulting in temporarily decreased muscle force production and soreness. Prior work indicates pasture-raised dairy products from grass-fed cows have greater anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties compared to grain-fed counterparts. However, limited research has evaluated the utility of whey protein from pasture-raised, grass-fed cows to enhance recovery compared to whey protein from non-grass-fed cows. Therefore, using a randomized, placebo-controlled design, we compared the effect of whey protein from pasture-raised, grass-fed cows (PRWP) to conventional whey protein (CWP) supplementation on indirect markers of muscle damage in response to eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in resistance-trained individuals. Thirty-nine subjects (PRWP, n = 14; CWP, n = 12) completed an eccentric squat protocol to induce EIMD with measurements performed at 24, 48, and 72 h of recovery. Dependent variables included: delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), urinary titin, maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MIVC), potentiated quadriceps twitch force, countermovement jump (CMJ), and barbell back squat velocity (BBSV). Between-condition comparisons did not reveal any significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in markers of EIMD via DOMS, urinary titin, MIVC, potentiated quadriceps twitch force, CMJ, or BBSV. In conclusion, neither PRWP nor CWP attenuate indirect markers of muscle damage and soreness following eccentric exercise in resistance-trained individuals.

Keywords:

• delayed onset muscle soreness
• eccentric exercise
• muscle recovery
• nutraceuticals
• nutritional supplements
• strength-trained individuals

Acknowledgements

We are forever grateful to the study subjects who took the time from their busy schedules to participate in the study. Furthermore, we would like to thank the Department of Chemistry at Indiana University for their efforts regarding mass spectrometry analysis.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: MJB, SJC, ZJS, ADF, TDM. Data curation: MJB, AE, HEG. Formal Analysis: MJB, AE, SJC, TDM. Investigation: MJB, AE, HEG, DK, AS. Methodology: MJB, HLP, TDM, SJC, ZJS, ADF. Project Administration: MJB, AE, HEG. Visualization: MJB. Writing—original draft: MJB. Writing—review and editing: MJB drafted the manuscript, and all authors edited and revised the manuscript and approved the final manuscript version.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by internal funds within the Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University.

Notes on contributors

Matthew J. Barenie

Dr. Matthew J. Barenie, PhD, RD, is a Post-Doctoral Fellow within the Center for the Study of Obesity at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. He received his BS in Dietetics from Indiana University, MS in Nutrition and Physical Performance at Saint Louis University, and his PhD in Exercise Physiology from Indiana University. Being a Registered Dietitian, his main research interests include optimizing physical performance and health through nutrition, training, and dietary supplementation.

Albaro Escalera

Dr. Albaro Escalera, PhD, CSCS, earned his doctorate from Indiana University-Bloomington in Exercise Physiology with a minor in Data Science after receiving his MS and BS in Exercise Science from Indiana State University where he was also an athlete and coach. His interests vary widely but involve improving understanding of sport performance through athlete assessment, training, nutrition, environmental physiology, prediction modeling, and data mining sports data sets. He also learned web development to make his dissertation project, an interactive altitude adjustment calculator for track and field events, available to the public at trackcalculator.com.

Stephen J. Carter

Dr. Stephen J. Carter, MS, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University Bloomington. As a cardiovascular physiologist, Dr. Carter’s research interest resides at the intersection of advancing age, obesity, and the menopausal transition. His work often employs multiple non-pharmacologic approaches including exercise training to enhance biomarkers of cardiometabolic health and physical function. An ongoing study is testing the utility of pre-exercise dietary nitrate to circumvent the constraints of exercise adaptation in late postmenopausal women.

Hope E. Grange

Ms. Hope E. Grange, BS, is a Health and Wellness Coach with WebMD Health Services specializing in the coaching of chronic health conditions. She received her BS in Fitness and Wellness from the School of Public Health at Indiana University. She is a certified ACE Health Coach and versatile group fitness instructor.

Hunter L. Paris

Dr. Hunter L. Paris, PhD, is an exercise physiologist and an Associate Professor of Sports Medicine at Pepperdine University. His research centers around the interplay between exercise, energy balance, and chronic disease, aiming to better understand and improve long-term maintenance of lost body weight. His recent work has investigated how the high altitude environment influences metabolic rate and energy metabolism in health and disease.

Danielle Krinsky

Ms. Danielle Krinsky, BS, is a Master of Public Health candidate at SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University. She received her BS degree in Exercise Science at Indiana University Bloomington. She has served as an undergraduate research assistant in the Exercise Physiology department during her time at Indiana University.

Abigail S. Sogard

Ms. Abigail S. Sogard, BSK, is a Master’s and PhD student in Human Performance at Indiana University. She received her BSK degree in Exercise Science and Nutrition from Indiana University. Her research focuses on physiological and dietary ergogenic aids and intervention targets for improvement in sports performance.

Zachary J. Schlader

Dr. Zachary (Zac) J. Schlader, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University-Bloomington (IUB). He came to IUB from the University at Buffalo, where he was an Assistant Professor in Exercise and Nutrition Sciences from 2014-2019. Zac completed his BS from Austin Peay State University (2006), his MS from IUB (2008) and his PhD from Massey University (New Zealand, 2011). He completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine under the mentorship of Dr. Craig Crandall. Zac’s research interests broadly involve understanding the implications of environmental stressors (e.g., heat, cold, altitude, depth) on integrative physiology. Current research foci include examining the impact of heat stress on kidney health and elucidating adaptations to diving related environmental exposures. These studies are carried out in healthy and clinical populations, and with relevance to at-risk populations (e.g., military, manual laborers, etc.).

Alyce D. Fly

Dr. Alyce D. Fly, PhD, CFS, is a Professor in the Department of Nutrition and Health Science at Ball State University. She earned her doctorate in Nutritional Sciences at University of Illinois and went to work for Indiana University Bloomington for many years where she achieved the rank of Professor, retiring as Professor Emeritus in July of 2020. Professor Fly has conducted nutrition research on the following topics: Measurement of food intake in children, dietary fatty acids and immunity, antioxidants and oxidant stressors, including oxidative stress in response to a high fat meal, bioavailability of minerals and carotenoids, measurement of biological markers, understand factors related to mothers’ decisions to exclusively breastfeed, and generally, obesity and health. She continues to work collaboratively with her IU colleagues in research and her new colleagues at Ball State University as the Department chair.

Timothy D. Mickleborough

Dr. Timothy D. Mickleborough, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University-Bloomington. His main research focus is integrative (whole-body) human exercise physiology, in particular the interaction between nutrition and the respiratory and cardiovascular systems in health and disease.