Towards a practice-based framework for supply chain resilience in the context of additive manufacturing technology adoption

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual research model.

Table 1. Resilience practices and SC capabilities in the context of AM adoption and SCM.

Study	Resilience practices	Employed metrics	SC capabilities
Belhadi et al. (2022)	Exchange information	Cost and time	Increased visibility
	SC common response		Increased collaboration
	Use maximum capacity		Increased flexibility
Ukobitz and Faullant (2021)	Reduce response time	Cost and time	Increased adaptability
Verboeket et al. (2021)	Reduce delivery lead time	Cost and delivery lead time	Increased adaptability
Delic and Eyers (2020)	Change the production schedule (via production postponement)	Cost and time of changing the schedules	Increased flexibility (in order fulfillment)
Kunovjanek and Reiner (2020)	Reduce waste	Inventory level and cost	Increased efficiency
Luomaranta and Martinsuo (2020)	SC common response	Cost and lead time	Increased collaboration
Delic et al. (2019)	Exchange information	Cost- and time-based performance	Increased SC integration
Zanoni et al. (2019)	Use alternative production sites	Cost and lead time	Increased dispersion
	Reduce delivery lead time		Increased adaptability
	Reduce response time
Chekurov et al. (2018)	Reduce delivery lead time	Cost, delivery lead time, and service level	Increased adaptability
Eyers et al. (2018)	Use maximum capacity	Investment costs	Decreased flexibility
Ghadge et al. (2018)	Reduce delivery lead time	Cost and lead time	Increased adaptability
	Reduce waste	Service level and inventory level	Increased efficiency
Durão et al. (2017)	Reduce delivery lead time	Cost and delivery lead time	Increased adaptability
Durach et al. (2017)	Reduce response time	Production lead time and costs	Increased adaptability
	Use alternative transport modes	Transportation costs	Increased flexibility
Niaki and Nonino (2017)	Use alternative suppliers	Cost	Decreased flexibility
	Reduce response time	Time-to-market	Increased adaptability
Oettmeier and Hofmann (2017)	Reduce response time	Service level	Increased adaptability
Steenhuis and Pretorius (2017)	SC common response	Cost, time, and quality	Increased flexibility
Bogers, Hadar, and Bilberg (2016)	SC common response	Cost and lead time	Increased collaboration
Chiu and Lin (2016)	Reduce response time	Total cost, lead time, and order fulfillment rate	Increased adaptability
	Use maximum capacity	Total cost and lead time	Increased flexibility
	Reduce waste	Waste rate and total cost	Increased efficiency
Knofius, van der Heijden, and Zijm (2016)	Reduce delivery lead time	Resupply lead time	Increased adaptability
	Use alternative suppliers	Number of supply options	Increased flexibility (in sourcing)
Oettmeier and Hofmann (2016)	SC common response	Material and product quality	Increased collaboration
	Reduce delivery lead time	Delivery lead time	Increased adaptability
Rylands et al. (2016)	Reduce response time	Cost and lead time	Increased adaptability
	Reduce delivery lead time
Wagner and Walton (2016)	Reduce delivery lead time	Cost and lead time	Increased adaptability
Eyers and Potter (2015)	Exchange information	Cost and time	Increased visibility and efficiency
	Use alternative production sites		Increased dispersion
Khajavi et al. (2015)	Use maximum capacity	Cost and time	Increased flexibility
			Increased efficiency
Khajavi, Partanen, and Holmström (2014)	Use maximum capacity	Total operating cost including downtime cost	Increased flexibility
	Use alternative production sites		Increased dispersion
Tuck, Hague, and Burns (2007)	Change the production schedule (via production postponement)	Cost and time	Increased flexibility (in order fulfillment)
			Increased adaptability
	Reduce delivery lead time
	Use maximum capacity		Increased efficiency
	Reduce waste

Table 2. Resilience practices and their metrics adapted from Carvalho et al. (2022).

Resilience practices	Metrics
Change the production schedule	Ease (cost and time) of changing the production schedules
Reduce delivery lead time	Ease (cost) of reducing delivery lead time
Use maximum capacity	Ease (cost and time) of adjusting the production capacity
Reduce response time	Ease (cost) of reducing production lead time
Supply chain common response	The degree of cooperation with other firms in the supply chain
Align supply chain information systems	Ease (cost and time) of exchanging reliable and timely information with supply chain partners
Use alternative suppliers	Number of available alternatives for sources of supply
Use alternative production sites	Number of available alternatives for production sites
Use alternative transport modes	Number of available alternatives for transporting goods and material

Table 3. Descriptive analysis of the sample.

	Frequency	Percent		Frequency	Percent
Country			Industry sector
Austria	2	3%	Aerospace	12	20%
Canada	4	7%	Automotive	14	23%
Denmark	1	2%	Engineering services	10	17%
China	4	7%	Energy (equipment and spare parts)	11	18%
France	2	3%	Medical	13	22%
Finland	1	2%	Total	60	100%
Germany	11	18%	Supply chain tier
Italy	2	3%	2^nd tier supplier	18	30%
Netherlands	3	5%	1^st tier supplier	32	53%
Portugal	1	2%	Focal company	10	17%
Spain	2	3%	Total	60	100%
Sweden	1	2%	Experts’ positions
Switzerland	1	2%	AM engineer	12	20%
United Kingdom	10	16%	AM manager	14	24%
United States	15	25%	Managing director	10	17%
Total	60	100%	Operations manager	11	18%
Company size			Production manager	8	13%
<50 employees	20	33%	Supply chain manager	5	8%
50–250 employees	12	20%	Total	60	100%
>250 employees	28	47%
Total	60	100%

Table 4. Descriptive analysis of the AM processes and their applications in the sample.

AM processes	Frequency	Percent	AM applications	Frequency	Percent
Powder bed fusion	50	32%	Direct part manufacturing	56	39%
Sheet lamination	4	3%	Rapid prototyping	52	36%
Directed energy deposition	12	8%	Rapid tooling	24	17%
Vat photopolymerization	24	16%	Maintenance, repair, and overhaul	12	8%
Material extrusion	34	23%	Total	144	100%
Material jetting	10	7%
Binder jetting	16	11%
Total	150	100%

Figure 2. Illustrative example of the two-step qualitative data analysis.

Figure 3. Text segment from Durão et al. (2017).

Table 5. Quantitative data analysis results.

Resilience practices	Mean	SD	Effect	Rank
Change the production schedule	4.04	1.01	High	1^st
Reduce delivery lead time	3.78	1.18	High	2^nd
Use maximum capacity	3.56	1.21	High	3^rd
Reduce response time	3.52	1.28	High	4^th
Supply chain common response	3.38	1.22	Moderate	5^th
Align supply chain information systems	3.25	1.47	Moderate	6^th
Use alternative suppliers	2.69	1.28	Moderate	7^th
Use alternative production sites	2.48	1.34	Low	8^th
Use alternative transport modes	2.18	1.63	Low	9^th

Note: The score for Cronbach’s α is 0.89 indicating the reliability of the scales.

Figure 4. Additive manufacturing-supply chain resilience practices (AM-SCRP) framework (see the online version for colors).

Table

SC capability	Definition	SC capability subfactor(s)	Definition
Flexibility (in sourcing)	Capability to promptly adjust inputs or the mode of receiving inputs.	Alternate suppliers	Capability to find alternative sources of supply for key inputs, e.g. raw material.
Flexibility (in order fulfillment)	Capability to promptly adjust outputs or the mode of delivering outputs.	Reallocation of production	Capability to promptly reallocate jobs/orders to different production units or among alternative suppliers.
		Production postponement	Capability to postpone production to better respond to demand.
		Inventory management	Capability to efficiently manage inventory (e.g. cycle stock, safety stock) at different SC nodes (e.g. warehouses, distribution centers, retail locations, etc.).
		Alternate distribution channels	Capability to promptly alter modes of transport as well as the routing options for outbound shipments.
Adaptability	Capability to adjust operations to respond to challenges or opportunities.	Lead time reduction	Capability to further reduce lead times.
		Rerouting of requirements	Capability to promptly reallocate jobs/orders to different production facilities or among alternative suppliers.
Dispersion	Capability to widely distribute or decentralize assets.	Distributed capacity	Capability to distribute the production facilities at various locations.
		Dispersion of markets	Capability to sell products to customers in different geographic locations.
Collaboration	Capability to work effectively with other firms for mutual interest.	Collaborative forecasting	Capability to utilize collaborative demand forecasting techniques through information sharing.
		Collaborative information sharing	Capability to transparently share information among SC members to improve collaborative decision-making.
		Postponement of orders	Capability to postpone orders when the production capacity is disrupted.
Visibility	Capability to gain knowledge about the SC environment as well as the status of the operating assets.	Information exchange	Capability to regularly exchange information with other SC members, e.g. customers, suppliers, etc.
Efficiency	Capability to generate outputs with minimal resource requirements.	Asset utilization	Capability to efficiently utilize assets to generate outputs.
Market Position	Capability of a firm in maintaining its position in specific markets.	Customer relationships	Capability to maintain strong, long-term relationships with customers.
Anticipation	Capability to detect impending events.	Demand forecasting	Capability to use forecasting methods effectively.
SC vulnerability	Definition	SC vulnerability subfactor(s)	Definition
Turbulence	Recurrent changes in external factors that are beyond the firm’s control.	Unpredictability in customer demand	Erratic customer demand for products.
		Exposure to geopolitical disruptions	Recurrent disruptions in imports/exports because of geopolitical turmoil.
		Unforeseen technology failures	Frequent unforeseen failures in technology that disrupt operations.
Resource limits	Output constraints caused by the unavailability of production factors.	Distribution capacity	Limited capacity for product distribution.
		Production capacity	Limited production capacity.
		Raw material availability	Limited supply of raw materials for production.
		Supplier capacity	Limited supplier capacity.
Connectivity	Degree of dependence on external entities.	Scale and extent of supply network	The number of members in the SC.
		Reliance upon specialty sources	Dependence on specialty components or materials for production.
		Import/export channels	Access to globally distributed SCs.
		Reliance upon information flow	Dependence on continuous information flow for everyday operations.
		Degree of outsourcing	The extent to which operations are outsourced to external entities.
SC vulnerability	Definition	SC vulnerability subfactor(s)	Definition
Deliberate threats	Deliberate misconduct to cause financial/human harm or disrupt operations.	Industrial espionage	Technologies or products being compromised by industrial espionage.
		Piracy and theft	Vandalism and theft of products.
		Terrorism and sabotage	Acts of terrorism or sabotage that target personnel or facilities.
Supplier/Customer disruptions	Vulnerability of customers and suppliers to outside forces or disruptions.	Supplier disruptions	Suppliers facing serious disruptions frequently.
		Customer disruptions	Customers facing serious disruptions frequently.
Sensitivity	Importance of carefully controlled conditions for process and product integrity.	Concentration of capacity	Geographic concentration and/or co-dependence of production facilities or suppliers.
External pressures	Business constraints or barriers caused by external influences, which do not specifically target the firm.	Competitive innovation	Frequent competitive innovations that threaten the firm’s product portfolio.

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Data availability statement

The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.