Comprehensive insights into water remediation: chemical, biotechnological, and nanotechnological perspectives

Figures & data

Figure 1. Sources of water contamination – a comprehensive overview of factors contributing to water pollution, including industrial waste, agricultural waste, municipal waste and human waste.

Figure 2. A new hybrid process for separation of heavy metal ions from contaminated water using integrated processes combining metal bonding [87].

Figure 3. Overview of advanced water treatment technologies, including chemical, biotechnological, and nanotechnological approaches for comprehensive water remediation.

Figure 4. Role of laccase enzymes and their natural phenolic mediators in soil bioremediation and detoxification of industrial waste [116].

Figure 5. Illustration of physiological processes in plants facilitating the removal of toxic substances - insights into plant mechanisms for detoxification and Remediation.

Figure 6. Green methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles.

Table 1. Preparation of NPs by using microbes and their applications.

Microbes	Nanoparticles	Application	Reference
Bacillus brevis	Ag NPs	Antibacterial activity against Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus strains	[136]
Pseudomonas aeruginos and Rhodopseudomonas capsulate	Au NPs	Antibacterial activity	[137] [138]
Serratia ureilytica	ZnO	Antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus	[139]
Lactobacillus plantarum	ZnO NPs	Antibacterial activity	[140]
Aeromonas hydrophila	ZnO NPs	Antibacterial activity	[141]
Halomonas elongate	CuO NPs	Antibacterial activity against S. Aureus and E. Coli.	[142]
Bacillus cereus	iron oxide NPs	Dose-dependent anti-cancer activities against the 3T3 and MCF-7 cell lines	[143]
Rhizopus stolonifera	Ag NP	Antibacterial activity	[144]
Candida glabrata	Ag NP	antibacterial activity	[145]
Aspergillus niger	ZnO	Antibacterial ability and Destroy Bismarck brown dye till 90%	[146]
Aspergillus nidulans	cobalt oxide	Dye degradation	[147]

Table 2. Plant extract mediated synthesis of nanoparticles and their applications in environmental remediation.

Plant sources	Nanoparticles	Application	Reference
Panax plant extracts: Dendropanax morbifera, Acanthopanax senticosus, and Kalopanax septemlobus	ZnO	Degradation of Malachite green (MG), Eosin Y, and methylene blue (MB)	[187,188]
Plant Extract	Ag	Degradation of Azo Dyes	[189]
Plant Extract	Pure and Ag-decorated CeO2	Degradation of RB Dyes	[190]
Hordeum vulgare seed extract	Ni NPs	Degradation of methylene blue	[185]
Plant extract Bougainvillea	red-emitting magnesium-nitrogen-embedded carbon dots	Degradation of methylene blue, an organic pollution dye,	[191,192]
Abutilon indicum’s aqueous leaf extract	CuO	Antioxidant, antibacterial, and photocatalytic dye degradation	[193,194]
Biebersteinia multifida	Ag NPs	Degradation of MB	[195]
Centella asiatica,	Cu and Ag	Dye degradation	[196]
A. altissima leaf extracts	TiO2	Degradation of crystal violet, methyl orange, Alizarin red, and methylene blue	[197]
A. indicum	Al-MnO NPs	Degradation of methylene blue and adsorption of (Cr (VI))	[198]
C. paniculatus leaf extract	Cu NPs	Degradation of organic dye	[199]
Extracts of tomato, onion, Acacia catechu, and combination extracts of these extracts	AgNPs	Degradation of MO, MR, and CR,	[200]
C. sinensis leaves	CuNPs	Degradation of Bromophenol blue (BPB) dye	[201]
European cranberry bush fruits	Cu NPs	Degradation of organic colorants, including carmoisine, tartrazine, and brilliant blue,	[202]
Rheum turkestanicum extract	Cerium Oxide	Decolorizing organic colors produced by industrial wastewater	[203]
Hibiscus sabdariffa aqueous extract	Fe nanoparticles	Dye degradation	[204]
Green tea leaves	Fe nanoparticles	Dye degradation methyl orange and methylene blue	[205]
Green tea leaves and sorghum bran extracts	iron nanoparticles	Dye degradation	[206]
Hibiscus sabdariffa flower extract	cerium oxide, gold, and silver nanoparticles,	Catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol	[207]
	Tio2 and Gold	Rhodamine B	[208]
	Au	Degradation of Dye	[209]
Fruit extract of the waste fruit Cynometra ramiflora.	iron oxide	Degradation of Dye	[210]
Aqueous extract of ferulago angulata (schlecht) boiss	ZnO, CuO NPs	Rhodamine B	[211]
Plant extract Convolvulus arvensis	CA-Ag NPs	Degradation of azo dyes	[212]
C. argentea whole plant extract	cobalt nanoparticles	Degradation of methylene blue	[213].
Psidium guajava leaf extract	CuO NPs	Degradation of the dyes Nile blue (NB) and Reactive yellow 160 (RY160)	[214]
R. tuberosa	CuO NPs	Photodegradation of crystal violet (CV) dye	[215]
Panos extract	ZnO	Removal of industrial dyes such as methylene blue (MB), Eosin Y (EY) and Malachite green (MG)	[216]
Citrus peel	CAg-nPs	Break down dangerous dyes, including MB, CR, RhB, MG, and 4-NP	[217]
Pomegranate seeds extra	Fe2O3NPs	Dye degradation	[218]

Table 3. The hazardous heavy metal contaminants and their negative impact on human health.

Heavy/Hazardous metals	Effect on human health
Mercury (Hg)	gastrointestinal tract toxicity: necrotic intestinal mucosa, bloody diarrhea; stomach discomfort, vomiting, maternal and foetal toxicity; mental retardation, blindness, cerebral palsy, dysarthria, deafness
Lead (Pb)	Kidney disease, cognitive problems, and hypertension
Arsenic (As)	liver cirrhosis, Hepatomegaly, altered heme metabolism, diabetes, myeloid depression, papillary, proximal tubule degeneration and cortical necrosis
Zinc (Zn)	dyspepsia, vascular shock, nausea, nasal, headache, asthma, lung cancer, vomiting, hypoglycemia, diarrhea, pancreatitis, and damage to the liver parenchyma, growth and reproduction issues
Copper (Cu)	Wilson’s disease, nasal mucosa irritation, hemolytic anemia, epigastric discomfort, nausea, and dizziness
Nickel (Ni)	asthma, pneumoconiosis, laryngeal and lung cancer
Chromium (Cr)	Rashes on the skin, impaired immune systems, stomach ulcers, kidney and liver damage, lung cancer, genetic material change, respiratory problems such as rhinitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, and bronchitis
Cadmium (Cd)	Damage to the kidneys (proximal renal tubule cells), the lungs, the liver, and the vascular system; bone demineralization.

Table 4. Iron nanoparticles prepared from plant, size and adsorption capacity.

Plant	Size (nm)	Adsorbate	Adsorption capacity (mg/g) /Percentage efficiency (%)
Neem leaf	21.03	DDT	–/90.20
Tangerine peel	50–20	Cd	10.90/90.00
Eriobotrya japonica	89.00	Cr(VI)	312.5/–
L. camara fruit	1.9	Ni (II)	227.20/–
Orange peel	500	Cd	–/71.43
Mangifera indica	100–150	Total Phosphates	–/91.89
Murraya Koenigii	100–150	Phosphates	–/97.68
Murraya Koenigii	100–150	Ammonia Nitrogen	–/87.08
Azadirachta Indica	96–110	Phosphates	–/98.08
Azadirachta Indica	96–110	Ammonia Nitrogen	–/84.32
Magnolia Champaca	99–129	Phosphates	–/98.84
Magnolia Champaca	99–129	Ammonia Nitrogen	–/74.78

Table 5. Comparative analysis of toxic ion absorption capabilities of NPs synthesized using traditional and biological methods.

Nanoparticle	Method	Toxic ion	Reference
Iron Oxide	Traditional (Co-precipitation)	Ni (13 mg g-1)	[275]
Iron Oxide	Plant-mediated (L. camara fruit)	Ni (212.5 mg g-1)	[276]
Iron Oxide	Traditional (Co-precipitation)	Cd (17 mg g-1)	[277]
Iron Oxide	Plant-mediated (Tangerine peel)	Cd (10.90 mg g-1)	[274]
Iron Oxide	Plant-mediated (Orange peel)	Cd (71.43% efficiency)	[225]
Zero valent Iron nanoparticle	Eucalyptus globules leaf extract	Cr (90% efficiency)	[278]
NFe3O4 Starch-Glu-NFe3O4 ED nanocomposite	Traditional method	Cr (210.74 mg g-1)	[279]
phyto-mediated Fe0/Fe3O4 nanoparticles	Plant-mediated	Cr(VI) (186.32 mg g-1)	[283]

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Data availability statement

Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.