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Abstract
How did the People’s Republic of China develop commercial relations with the Global South during its Maoist years? This paper aims to explore the question through China’s market entry strategies in Latin America. Latin America posed significant challenges for Mao-era China in establishing robust relations. Under intense US pressure and the dominance of conservative politics, most Latin American nations maintained minimal commercial and political ties with China until 1971 when Beijing replaced Taipei in the UN. Notable exceptions were Cuba, following its armed revolution in 1959, and Chile, after its peaceful revolution in 1970, which formally recognised the PRC, leading to substantial trade agreements. This paper examines Chinese trade promotion in the region during the 1960s and early 1970s, contending that commercial ties, particularly Chinese exports to Latin America, were not simply the inevitable outcome of these revolutions and the establishment of diplomatic relations. Policy makers in Beijing and Chinese commercial representatives in Latin America strategically navigated market entry by leveraging cultural promotions, focusing on competitive Chinese products, notably processed foods, and tapping into the Chinese Overseas community as intermediaries. These strategies not only cultivated a favourable image of China in the region but also acquainted Latin American consumers with Chinese brands and products. Moreover, the paper analyzes how Chinese trade promoters recognised and addressed the nuances and disparities among Latin American countries, comprehended the significance of Cuba and Chile within the region, and contextualised Latin America’s position in the global market.
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Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Ghassan Moazzin, Kang Jin-A, and John Wong for my inclusion in this special issue, and Dan Wadhwani, Zhaojin Zeng, and the anonymous reviewers for valuable comments on former versions of this paper. The author is also grateful for comments and recommendations from participants at the Princeton University Latin America and Caribbean Workshop.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 This paper focuses on mainland Chinese activities and strategies rather than competitions between Beijing and Taipei in Latin America. The Republic of China’s Embassies and representatives play a minor role in the analysis. Therefore, terms such as ‘China’ and ‘Chinese’ refer to the People’s Republic of China.
2 ‘对外贸易部办公厅编印: 我国同古巴贸易计划 [General Office of the Ministry of Foreign Trade Edits: Our Trade Plan with Cuba]’, September 1960, T5/9. In 1958-1965中华人民共和国经济档案资料选编, p.356.
3 Consulado General de Chile en Hong Kong, ‘China: producción y compra de fertilizantes’, May 23, 1960. Archivo General Histórico, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile. Fondo Histórico 5649. In 1959, the PRC imported 500,000 tons of nitrate from Morocco and only 10,100 from Chile (Chou, Citation2001).
4 ‘对外贸易部党组关于党组会议讨论今后对外贸易发展趋势、任务、方针政策和重要措施的报告 [Ministry of Foreign Trade’s Party Discussion over Trends, Tasks, Policies, and Important Measures in Future Foreign Trades]’, May 11, 1958, National Archives of China, Z9-855-4. In Chinese Academy of Social Sciences & National Archives Administration of China (Citation2011), 1958-1965中华人民共和国经济档案资料选编 [Collections of the People’s Republic of China’s Economic Archival Files], China Financial & Economic Publishing House, p. 8.
5 ‘中共中央批转财贸办公室关于继续扩大高价糖果和高价糕点供应范围的报告 [Report of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China’s Finance and Trade Office on Continuing to Expand the Supply Scope of High-Priced Candies and High-Priced Pastries]’, Feb 28, 1961, The Chinese Great Leap Forward-Great Famine Database.
6 ‘驻古巴大使申健离任和古巴同意王幼平为驻古大使 [Ambassador to Cuba Shen Jian resigned and Cuba agreed to appoint Wang Youping as ambassador to Cuba]’, May 14, 1964, The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archive, 117-01139-05.
7 Letter from Shen Jian to Lázaro Cárdenas, Fondo Heriberto Jara Corona, 27798, Archivo Histórico de la UNAM.
8 ‘中国-古巴建交五周年活动 [Activities celebrating the fifth anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Cuba]’, August 26, 1965, The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archive, 117-01246-01.
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11 ‘中共中央关于抓紧当前对外贸易收购和出口工作的紧急指示 [Emergency Instructions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Accelerating the Current Foreign Trade Acquisition and Export Work]’, October 29, 1961. The Chinese Great Leap Forward-Great Famine Database.
12 ‘上海市对外贸易局关于抄转对外贸易部关于对拉丁美洲国家和加拿大出口选用船只的通知的通知 [Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Trade Copy: The Ministry Trade’s Announcement of Shipping Arrangements for Exports to Latin American Countries and Canada]’, Shanghai Municipal Archives, B170-2-1547-89.
13 US Department of Commerce, ‘Free-World Shipping in the Cuban Trade’, September 24, 1962. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, National Security Files, Box 57.
14 US Department of State Bureau of Intelligence and Research, ‘Communist China Puts US Regulations on Cuban Shipping to Test’, October 12, 1962. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, National Security Files, Box 57.
15 US Department of State, ‘Sale of Wheat’, October 28, 1963, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, National Security Files, Box 57.
16 ‘Message from Gen. Clifton’, November 8, 1961, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, National Security Files, Box 22A.
17 CIA, “Peiping’s Exchange Program for Africa and Latin America,” November 16, 1961.
18 ‘轻工业部食品工业局、中国粮油食品进出口公司关于转去驻古巴商务处关于古巴消费者对我国罐头品质的反映请研究改进的联合通知 [The Joint Notice of the Food Industry Bureau of the Ministry of Light Industry and China National Cereals, Oils and Foodstuffs Import and Export Corporation on Transferring to the Department of Commerce in Cuba Regarding Cuban Consumers’ Reflections on the Quality of Our Country’s Canned Foods, Please Study and Improve]’, Shanghai Municipal Archives, B189-2-432-3.
19 ‘1969年对东欧、古巴、越南出口罐头完成情况意见 [Opinions on the Completion of Canned Food Exports to Eastern Europe, Cuba and Vietnam in 1969]’, Guangdong Provincial Archives, 325-1-973-043.
20 ‘转发关于印送1983年中国对古巴出口内部货单的通知 [Forwarding the Notice Regarding the Printing and Delivery of the 1983 Internal Bill of Goods for China’s Exports to Cuba]’, Tianjin Municipal Archives, 401206800-x0175-y-001215-006.
21 ‘Solicitase autorización para efectuar Exposición Economía y Comercial de la R. Popular China’, November 26, 1963. Archivo General Histórico, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile. Fondo Países CHN 3.
22 ‘駐墨西哥國大使館致本部原代電抄件, 中華民國五十二年十二月十八日 [Copy of the Original Telegram from the Embassy in Mexico to Taipei, December 18, 1963]’. The Archives of Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 505.24/0003.
23 ‘Chinese Communist Activities in Chile, 1963-1966’, Yale University Archives, T’ang Wu Papers, Box 2.
24 Tang Wu, ‘中華民國駐智利國大使館報告 [Report from the Republic of China Embassy in Chile]’. The Archives of Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 505.24/0003.
25 ‘中国人民对外文化协会上海市分会办公室关于智利伊基克市前市长接待工作情况的汇报 [Report on the receptions for former mayor of Iquique, Chile, by the office of the Shanghai Branch of the Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries]’, Shanghai Municipal Archives, C37-2-1203-7.
26 ‘Telex EPS no. 85’, September 21, 1972, and ‘Telex EPX no.86’, September 26, 1972. Archivo General Histórico, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile. Fondo Países CHN 20; ‘Aerograma DPC no.2, Pekin’, June 16, 1973. Fondo Países CHN 23.
27 Social media provides valuebale insights into ‘chancho chino’ in today’s Chilean culture and political debates. See ‘Se vuelve a poner de moda el Chancho Chino,’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zdp6JmMmcMQ and discussions on Facebook https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1250776955016955&set=a.556119347816056.
28 ‘上海市对外贸易局革命委员会关于赴墨西哥提华纳展览团贸易小组工作方案的请示 [Request for Instructions from the Revolutionary Committee of the Shanghai Foreign Trade Bureau on the Work Plan of the Trade Group of the Exhibition in Tijuana, Mexico]’, October 4, 1975, Shanghai Municipal Archives, B248-2-821-18. ‘上海市对外贸易革命委员会关于上报 1975 年赴墨西哥提华纳市中国经济贸易展览会展团工作总结的报告 [Report of the Shanghai Foreign Trade Revolutionary Committee on the Summary of the Work of the China Economic and Trade Exhibition Delegation to Tijuana, Mexico in 1975],’ February 16, 1976. Shanghai Municipal Archives, B170-3-403-68.
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Jian Ren
Jian Ren is a doctoral candidate at the Department of History, Rutgers University. His research focuses on China-Latin America relations in the Cold War era.