Medieval Liturgy and the Making of Poland: A Study in Early Medieval Political Identification (c. 960s—c. 1030s)

ABSTRACT

Although the issues of premodern ethnogenesis, early medieval state formation, and political identification are central fields of inquiry in recent historiography, scholars rarely refer to liturgical sources even when discussing the significance of political rituals. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to examine identity formation in the Piast realms based on liturgical evidence. First, the paper analyzes the meaning and spread of the name Polonia proper, as applied c. 1000 for the territory under the Piast ruler. Second, the paper analyzes how Christian liturgy enabled leaders to shape and internalise Polish political identity through the liturgical invocation of the name of a ruler. Finally, based on the Carolingian, post-Carolingian, and Slavic analogies, the paper argues that the political message conveyed by liturgical phenomena should not be seen as exclusively limited to the members of the clergy, but rather that it could have reached a broader audience as well.

KEYWORDS:

• Liturgy
• state-formation
• Polonia
• ritual
• manuscripts
• invocations
• naming

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

¹ This work was supported by National Science Center, Poland [Narodowe Centrum Nauki, Polska, Sonatina, grant number 2018/28/C/HS3/00464]. The final improvements to this article have been made at the University of Regensburg, during a Research Fellowship funded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. The text develops my earlier paper published in Polish as ‘Liturgiczne początki Polonii. Lokalna adaptacja chrześcijańskiego kultu a tworzenie polskiej tożsamości politycznej w X–XI wieku’, in Oryginalność i wtórność polskiej kultury politycznej i religijnej (X–XIII w.), eds. Roman Michałowski and Grzegorz Pac (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2020), 724–95. I am particularly indebted to Jakub Kubieniec, Erik Ellis, Miłosz Sosnowski, Levi Roach, and Sean Griffin for improving the article with their expertise. Special thanks goes to Bryan Kozik and Laura Napran who proofread the article.

² Codex Mathildis, Düsseldorf, Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek, MS C. 91, fol. 2v: ‘non adeo humano quam diuino iudicio electum ad regendum populum sanctum Dei’. Transcription of the manuscript in Brygida Kürbis et al., eds., Kodeks Matyldy: księga obrzędów z kartami dedykacyjnymi. Monumenta Sacra Polonorum 1 (Kraków: Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 2000). Recent studies: Andrzej Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype: Polish Rulers and their Country in German Writings, c. 1000 A.D. (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2011), 254–85; Zbigniew Dalewski, ‘Sakralność władzy królewskiej pierwszych Piastów’, Historia Slavorum Occidentis 14:3 (2017): 43–57. On the medieval appropriations of God’s universal election: Gerda Heydemann and Walter Pohl, ‘The Rhetoric of Election: 1 Peter 2.9 and the Franks’, in Religious Franks: Religion and Power in the Frankish Kingdoms: Studies in Honour of Mayke de Jong, eds. Rob Meens, Dorine van Espelo and Bram van den Hoven van Genderen (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016), 13–31. Challenges to the older scholarly narratives are provided by Mary Garrison, ‘The Franks as the New Israel? Education for an Identity from Pippin to Charlemagne’, in The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, eds. Yitzhak Hen and Matthew Innes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 114–61; Conor O’Brien, ‘Empire, Ethnic Election and Exegesis in the Opus Caroli (Libri Carolini)’, in The Church and Empire, ed. Stewart J. Brown (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 96–108. In Matilda’s letter, populus refers to both the clergy and the laity. On the double meaning of populus as either clergy and the laity or the laity alone see Sarah Hamilton, Church and People in the Medieval West, 900–1200 (London-New York: Routledge, 2013), 17–18.

³ Liber de diviniis officiis, ed. Jean-Paul Migne. Patrologia Latina 101 (Paris: Migne, 1863), cols. 1173–1286. This text still begs a critical edition. On this liturgical treatise (or its parts): Fernand Cabrol, ‘Liber de divinis officiis’, in Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, vol. 1:1, eds. Henri Leclercq and Fernand Cabrol (Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1924), cols. 1089–1090; André Wilmart, ‘Expositio missae’ in Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, vol. 5:1, eds. Henri Leclercq and Fernand Cabrol (Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1922), cols. 1026–1027; J. Joseph Ryan, ‘Pseudo-Alcuin’s Liber de Divinis Officiis and the Liber Dominus Vobiscum of St. Peter Damiani’, Mediaeval Studies 14 (1952): 159–63; Jean-Paul Bouhot, ‘Les sources de l’Expositio missae de Remi d’Auxerre’, Revue d’études augustiniennes et patristiques 26, 1–2 (1980): 118–69; Bouhot, ‘Pour une édition critique de l’Expositio Missae de Remi d’Auxerre’, in L’Ecole carolingienne d’Auxerre de Murethach à Remi, 830–908, eds. Dominique Iogna-Prat, Colette Jeudy, and Guy Lobrichon (Paris: Beauchesne, 1991), 425–34.

⁴ On the premodern identification and ethnogenesis: Walter Pohl and Gerda Heydemann, eds., Strategies of Identification: Ethnicity and Religion in Early Medieval Europe (Turnhout: Brepols, 2013); Helmut Reimitz, History, Frankish Identity and the Framing of Western Ethnicity, 550–850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Walter Pohl, ‘Historiography and Identity — Methodological Perspectives’, in Historiography and Identity I: Ancient and Early Christian Narratives of Community, eds. Walter Pohl and Veronika Wieser (Turnhout: Brepols, 2019), 7–20. On the debate on the early medieval state: Gerd Althoff, Die Ottonen: Königsherrschaft ohne Staat (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2005), 230–47; Stuart Airlie, Walter Pohl, and Helmut Reimitz, eds., Staat im frühen Mittelalter (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissensschaften, 2006); Walter Pohl and Veronika Wieser, eds., Der frühmittelalterliche Staat: europäische Perspektiven (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissensschaften, 2009); David S. Bachrach, The Foundations of Royal Power in Early Medieval Germany Material Resources and Governmental Administration in a Carolingian Successor State (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2022). The key Polish scholarship on the ‘origins of Poland’ with references to earlier works: Kazimierz Tymieniecki, Gerard Labuda, and Henryk Łowmiański, eds., Początki państwa polskiego: księga tysiąclecia (Poznań: PTPN, 2002²); Andrzej Buko, The Archaeology of Early Medieval Poland: Discoveries-Hypotheses-Interpretations (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 175–221; Przemysław Urbańczyk, Zanim Polska została Polską (Toruń: Wydawnictwo UMK, 2015); Maciej Trzeciecki, ‘The Emergence of the Territorial State’, in The Past Societies. Polish Lands from the First Evidence of Human Presence to the Early Middle Ages, vol. 5: 500 AD–1000 AD, ed. Maciej Trzeciecki (Warszawa: IAE PAN, 2016), 277–341; Andrzej Buko, Świt państwa polskiego (Warszawa: IAE PAN, 2021). In none of the scholarly works on the creation of Poland were liturgical sources included among the significant factors of political identification or ethnogenesis.

⁵ Cf. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, ‘Mysteries of State: An Absolutist Concept and Its Late Mediaeval Origins’, The Harvard Theological Review 48:1 (1955): 65–91 and the opus magnum of Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997); Régine Le Jan, ‘Die Sakralität der Merowinger oder Mehrdeutigkeiten der Geschichtsschreibung’, in Staat im frühen Mittelalter, eds. Airlie, Pohl, and Reimitz, 73–92.

⁶ The literature on the subject is immense. For the overview see: Paweł Figurski, ‘Sacramental Kingship: Modern Historiography versus Medieval Sources’, in Political Liturgies in the High Middle Ages: Beyond the Legacy of Ernst H. Kantorowicz, eds. Paweł Figurski, Johanna Dale, and Pieter Byttebier (Turnhout: Brepols, 2021), 26–35.

⁷ E.g. Michael McCormick, Eternal Victory: Triumphal Rulership in Late Antiquity, Byzantium and the Early Medieval West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Yitzhak Hen, The Royal Patronage of Liturgy in Frankish Gaul: To the Death of Charles the Bald (877) (London: Boydell & Brewer, 2001); Ildar H. Garipzanov, The Symbolic Language of Authority in the Carolingian World (c. 751–877) (Leiden: Brill, 2008), especially 43–100; Rennie S. Choy, Intercessory Prayer and the Monastic Ideal in the Time of the Carolingian Reforms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), especially 131–61; Figurski, ‘Sacramental Kingship’, 40–50. A general overview of scholarship on the political significance of liturgy offered recently is Paweł Figurski and Pieter Byttebier, ‘Introduction’, in Political Liturgies, eds. Figurski, Dale, and Byttebier, 12–5.

⁸ Informative in this regard is a search through Florin Curta, ed., Bibliography of the History and Archaeology of Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (online: Brill, 2019, https://bibliographies.brillonline.com/browse/bibliography-of-the-history-and-archaeology-of-eastern-europe-in-the-middle-ages), accessed 30 March 2020.

⁹ József Gerics, On the Use of the So-called Egbert (Dunstan) Ordo in Hungary in the 11th Century: The Presentation of the Coronation of Salamon in the Chronicles, trans. Miklos Lojko, (online: https://www.academia.edu/1977779/On_the_Use_of_the_So-called_Egbert_Dunstan_Ordo_in_Hungary_in_the_11th_Century_The_Presentation_of_the_Coronation_of_Salamon_in_the_Chronicles), accessed 24 May 2022; Zbigniew Dalewski, ‘Vivat Princeps in Eternum! Sacrality of Ducal Power in Poland in the Earlier Middle Ages’, in Monotheistic Kingship: The Medieval Variants, eds. János M. Bak and Aziz Al-Azmeh (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2004), 215–30; Przemysław Wiszewski, Domus Bolezlai: Values and Social Identity in Dynastic Traditions of Medieval Poland (c. 966–1138), trans. Paul Barford and Agnieszka Wiszewska (Leiden: Brill, 2010); David Kalhous, Anatomy of a Duchy: The Political and Ecclesiastical Structures of Early Premyslid Bohemia (Leiden: Brill, 2012), esp. 208–37; Maddalena Betti, The Making of Christian Moravia: (858–882). Papal Power and Political Reality (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 39–40, 208; David Kalhous, Bohemi: Prozesse der Identitätsbildung in frühpřemyslidischen Ländern (bis 1200) (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissensschaften, 2018), esp. 27–54. One of the model examples for the studies on Christianization in which liturgy was extensively utilized is Nora Berend, ed., Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus’ c. 900–1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). See also the digital website of the project: http://christianization.hist.cam.ac.uk/questionnaire.html, accessed 30 March 2020.

¹⁰ Sean Griffin, The Liturgical Past in Byzantium and Early Rus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

¹¹ Based on the extant repositories of manuscripts preserved in contemporary Poland and manuscripts usually associated with the early medieval Piast realms preserved outside of Poland, there are sixteen liturgical manuscripts compared to fifteen non-liturgical ones until c. 1100. Numbers are based on Constant J. Mews, ‘Manuscripts in Polish Libraries Copied before 1200 and the Expansion of Latin Christendom in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, Scriptorium 56:1 (2002): 80–118, the online results of the project http://manuscripta.pl, accessed 28 November 2019, and personal examination of library catalogues and manuscripts. The preliminary list of liturgical manuscripts extant in contemporary Poland: Paweł Figurski, Database (online: http://liturgica-poloniae.ihpan.edu.pl/database/), accessed 6 December 2022. Scholarship on liturgy in early and high medieval Poland is summarized and referenced in Paweł Figurski, ‘Beyond the Monarchical Church Model: Liturgy, Manuscripts, and Bishops in the Kingdom of Poland. Case Studies from the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, in Bischof und Diözese im Früh- und Hochmittelalter. Die ‘Episkopalisierung der Kirche’ im europäischen Vergleich, eds. Hedwig Röckelein and Andreas Bihrer (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2022), 361–404, esp. 367.

¹² Regestum’s text in Brygida Kürbis, ed., ‘Dagome iudex. Studium krytyczne’, in Początki państwa polskiego, eds. Tymieniecki, Labuda, and Łowmiański, 394–6. Commentary on the source in Przemysław Nowak, ‘Dagome iudex w Zbiorze kanonów kardynała Deusdedita’, Studia Źródłoznawcze 51 (2013): 75–94 and idem, ‘Recent Work on the Dagome iudex in the Collectio Canonum of Cardinal Deusdedit’, in Sacri canones editandi. Studies on Medieval Canon Law in Memory of Jirí Kejr, ed. Pavel O. Krafl (Brno: Reprocentrum, 2017), 25–39.

¹³ Roma, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Vat. lat. 3833, fol. 87r: ‘nescio cuius gentis homines, puto autem Sardos fuisse, quoniam ipsi a IIII iudicibus reguntur’.

¹⁴ Roma, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Ott. lat. 3057, fol. 131r: ‘de provincia polanorum’.

¹⁵ Life of St Methodius, c. 11, in Tadeusz Lehr-Spławiński, ed., Żywoty Konstantyna i Metodego (Warszawa: Alfa-Wero, 2000), 115; Bavarian Geographer is a common name for the Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii, preserved in München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 560, fol. 150r; Malcolm R. Godden, ed., The Old English History of the World. An Anglo-Saxon Rewriting of Orosius (Cambridge, MA-London: Harvard University Press, 2016), 1:1:14, p. 35.

¹⁶ Buko, The Archaeology of Early Medieval Poland, 175–221, Buko, Świt państwa polskiego, 141–80; Michał Kara, Najstarsze państwo Piastów – rezultat przełomu czy kontynuacji? Studium archeologiczne (Poznań: IAE PAN, 2009), esp. p. 317; Kara, ‘Archeologia o początkach państwa Piastów. Nowe aspekty i wyniki badań’, in Tradycje i nowoczesność. Początki państwa polskiego na tle środkowoeuropejskim w badaniach interdyscyplinarnych, ed. Hanna Kóčka-Krenz, Marzena Matla, and Marcin Danielewski (Poznań: UAM, 2016), 175–86; Trzeciecki, ‘The Emergence of the Territorial State’, 277–341; Andrzej Buko, ‘Małopolska i Wielkopolska IX–X wieku w perspektywie badań archeologicznych’, in Spór o początki państwa polskiego. Historiografia, tradycja, mit, propaganda, ed. Wojciech Drelicharz, Daniel Jasiak, and Jacek Poleski (Kraków: Historia Iagellonica, 2017), 22–3.

¹⁷ Andrzej Buko, ‘The Bodzia Cemetery in Light of the Interdisciplinary Research’, in Bodzia. A Late Viking-Age Elite Cemetery in Central Poland, eds. Andrzej Buko and Dorota Cyngot (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015), esp. 523–53. Other cemeteries from the early Piast period confirm the multicultural character attested in Bodzia: Buko, Świt państwa polskiego, 232–38.

¹⁸ Tadeusz Kowalski, ed., Relacja Ibrahima ibn Jakuba z podróży do krajów słowiańskich w przekazie al-Bekriego. MPH s.n. 1 (Kraków: Księgarnia Gebethnera i Wolffa, 1946), 48–50; Paul Hirsch, ed., Die Sachsengeschichte des Widukind von Korvei. MGH SRG 60 (Hannover: Hahn, 1935), 3:66, p. 141. On these passages: Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype, 11–41; Dariusz Sikorski, Początki Kościoła w Polsce (Poznań: PTPN, 2012), 19–49.

¹⁹ Dariusz Adamczyk, ‘Czy bez Mahometa nie byłoby Mieszka I i Bolesława I? Arabski system handlowy a ekonomia polityczna społeczeństw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w X wieku’, Historia Slavorum Occidentis 1:8 (2015): 19–33; idem, Silber und Macht. Fernhandel, Tribute und die piastische Herrschaftsbildung in nordosteuropäischer Perspektive (800–1100) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014); review by Marek Jankowiak on this book in Early Medieval Europe 25:4 (2017): 526–8. See more recently Dariusz Adamczyk, Monetarisierungsmomente, Kommerzialisierungszonen oder fiskalische Währungslandschaften? Edelmetalle, Silberverteilungsnetzwerke und Gesellschaften in Ostmitteleuropa (800–1200) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2020); Marek Jankowiak, ‘Dirham Flows into Northern and Eastern Europe and the Rhythms of the Slave Trade with the Islamic World’, in Viking-Age Trade: Silver, Slaves and Gotland, eds. Jacek Gruszczyński, Marek Jankowiak, and Jonathan Shepard (New York: Routledge, 2021), 105–31; Dariusz Adamczyk, ‘Trading Networks, Warlords and Hoarders: Islamic Coin Flows into Poland in the Viking Age’, in Viking-Age Trade, eds. Gruszczyński, Jankowiak, and Shepard, 132–54.

²⁰ Andrzej Pleszczyński, ‘Kryzys i upadek wczesnych państw słowiańskich oraz ich odbudowa (IX–XI wiek). Zarys problemu’, Kwartalnik Historyczny 125:2 (2018): 263–302.

²¹ Dagfinn Skre, ‘Some Reflections on Gotland: Slavery, Slave-traders and Slave-takers’, in Viking-Age Trade, eds. Gruszczyński, Jankowiak, and Shepard, 437–49.

²² Cf. Florin Curta, Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300) (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 152–78.

²³ Buko, Świt państwa polskiego, 203–9.

²⁴ Nathan J. Ristuccia, ‘“Lex”: A Study on Medieval Terminology for Religion’, Journal of Religious History 43:4 (2019): 531–48.

²⁵ Roman Michałowski, ‘Pałace monarsze na tle geografii sakralnej pierwszej monarchii piastowskiej. Uwagi wstępne’, in Świat średniowiecza. Studia ofiarowane Profesorowi Henrykowi Samsonowiczowi, eds. Agnieszka Bartoszewicz, Grzegorz Myśliwski, Jerzy Pysiak and Paweł Żmudzki (Warszawa: WUW, 2010), 455–6; Wojciech Chudziak, ‘Die Kirche im Burgwall von Kałdus bei Kulm (Chełmno)’, in: Europas Mitte um 1000, eds. Alfried Wieczorek and Hans-Martin Hinz (Stuttgart: Konrad Theiss, 2000), 330–1; idem, Wczesnośredniowieczna przestrzeń sakralna “in Culmine” na Pomorzu Nadwiślańskim (Toruń: UMK, 2003), 86–97 (the construction of Kałdus basilica dated to the first half of the eleventh century, possibly during the reign of Bolesław the Brave or Mieszko II); Buko, Świt państwa polskiego, 189–202; Marta Graczyńska, Architecture and Power in Early Central Europe, trans. Joanna Sobczak (Leeds: Arc Humanities, 2022).

²⁶ Walter Pohl, ‘Introduction – Strategies of Identification: A Methodological Profile’, in Pohl and Heydemann, eds., Strategies of Identification, 3.

²⁷ Kowalski, ed., Relacja Ibrahima ibn Jakuba, 48.

²⁸ Hirsch, ed., Die Sachsengeschichte des Widukind von Korvei, 3:66, p. 141.

²⁹ Gerhard of Augsburg, Vita Sancti Uodalrici: die älteste Lebensbeschreibung des heiligen Ulrich, eds. Walter Berschin and Angelika Häse (Heidelberg: Winter, 1993), 2:22, p. 380.

³⁰ Karl Schmid, ed., Die Klostergemeinschaft von Fulda im früheren Mittelalter, vol. 1: Grundlegung und Edition der fuldischen Gedenküberlieferung (München: Fink, 1978), 346.

³¹ Władysław Duczko, Ruś wikingów. Historia obecności Skandynawów we wczesnośredniowiecznej Europie Wschodniej, trans. Natalia Kreczmar (Warszawa: Trio, 2006), 174; Przemysław Urbańczyk, Trudne początki Polski (Wrocław: WUWr, 2008), 317–60; László Tapolcai, ‘Polanie – plemię, dynastia, państwo? Skąd się wzięły nazwy: Poloni i Polonia w źródłach zachodnich w końcu X i na początku XI wieku?’, in Człowiek w średniowieczu. Między biologią a historią, ed. Alicja Szymczakowa (Łódź: WUŁ, 2009), 93; Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype, 139–48; Paweł Żmudzki, ‘Kulturowy kontekst nazw “Polanie”, “Polacy”, “Polska” w średniowiecznej historiografii polskiej i ruskiej’, in Symboliczne i realne podstawy tożsamości społecznej w średniowieczu, eds. Sławomir Gawlas and Paweł Żmudzki (Warszawa: WUW, 2017), 168.

³² The fact is, at times, omitted in the discussion: cf. Stanisław Suchodolski, ‘Orzeł czy paw? Jeszcze o denarze Bolesława Chrobrego z napisem Princes Polonie’, in Inter Orientem et Occidentem. Studia z dziejów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej ofiarowane profesorowi Janowi Tyszkiewiczowi w czterdziestolecie pracy naukowej, ed. Tadeusz Wasilewski (Warszawa: DiG, 2002), 153–69; Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype, 139–48; Żmudzki, ‘Kulturowy kontekst’, 165–220.

³³ Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, MS Lit. 5, fol. 97v: ‘Polania ergo tanti sepeliens floret martyrii pignora’.

³⁴ Friedrich Leitschuh, Hans Fischer, Katalog der Handschriften der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Bamberg, vol. 1:1: Liturgische Handschriften (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1966) (1st ed. 1898), 143–5 (10th c. dating); Percy E. Schramm and Florentine Mütterich, Denkmale der deutschen Könige und Kaiser (München: Prestel, 1962), 160–1 (1000–02); Heinrich Husmann, Tropen- und Sequenzenhandschriften (München-Duisburg: Henle, 1964), 58–9 (1001); Henryk Kowalewicz, ‘Najstarsza sekwencja o św. Wojciechu Annua recolamus, I. Tekst’, Musica Medii Aevi 3 (1969): 30–1; Helmut Maurer, ‘Rechtlicher Anspruch und geistliche Würde der Abtei Reichenau unter Kaiser Otto III.’, in Helmut Maurer, Die Abtei Reichenau: neue Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kultur des Inselklosters (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1974), 268–9 (beginning of 1001–beginning of 1002); Wolfram von den Steinen, Notker der Dichter und seine geistige Welt, 2 vols. (Bern: Francke, 1978), 2: 206 (1001–02); Hartmut Hoffmann, Buchkunst und Königtum im ottonischen und frühsalischen Reich (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1986), 311–12 (1001); Hoffmann, Bamberger Handschriften des 10. und des 11. Jahrhunderts (Hannover: Hahn, 1995), 32, 94, 144 (1001); Henry Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 2 vols. (Stuttgart: Belser, 1991), 1: 152 (1000–02); Andreas Bücker, Liturgical Theology: Tropes at Ottonian Reichenau (Cambridge, PhD Dissertation, 2002), 17–18 (1001); Michael Klaper, Die Musikgeschichte der Abtei Reichenau im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert: ein Versuch (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2003), 32 (1001).

³⁵ Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, MS Lit. 5, fol. 97v: ‘Otto caesar tua nisus confidentia/ romanis retulerat brachii munera’.

³⁶ Michele Mastrocola, ed., ‘Inventio atque translatio sanctorum Abundii et Abundantii ex codice Ariananiensi descripta’, in Mastrocola, Note storiche circa le diocesi di Civita C. Orte e Gallese (Civita Castellana: Pian Paradisi, 1964), 250. Analysis of this issue in Roman Michałowski, The Gniezno Summit. The Religious Premises of the Founding of the Archbishopric of Gniezno, trans. Anna Kijak (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 141–4, 180–2.

³⁷ Pascale Bourgain, ed., Ademari Cabannensis Chronicon. CCCM 129 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1999), 3:31, p. 153–4. On the attribution of this passage to Adémar: Dariusz Sikorski, ‘Kronika Ademara z Chabannes – odzyskane źródło dla najstarszych dziejów Polski’, Studia Źródłoznawcze 40 (2002): 215–20.

³⁸ Robert Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar von Merseburg und ihre Korveier Überarbeitung. MGH SRG n.s. 9 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1935), 4:46, p. 184.

³⁹ Karol Maleczyński, ed., Galli Anonymi Cronica et Gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum. MPH s.n. 2 (Kraków: PAU, 1952), 1:6, p. 19. On the credibility of information from the mysterious Liber de passione see Roman Michałowski, ‘Relacja Galla Anonima o Zjeździe Gnieźnieńskim’, in Tekst źródła – krytyka, interpretacja, ed. Barbara Trelińska (Warszawa: DiG, 2005), 57–64.

⁴⁰ Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, MS Lit. 5, fol. 97v: ‘quem [Otto] deo cum cloero (sic) et plebe/commendare digneris/sibimet subiecta’.

⁴¹ The local name appears numerous times in the manuscript: Augia and Augienses (fol. 98v, 99r, 137v, 138r, 141r), formerly also on fol. 95v. On the book’s provenance see Hoffmann, Buchkunst, 1: 312; Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 1: 152, 154: ‘the sequences include those for a series of saints which, taken together, can only mean the Reichenau liturgy’; Klaper, Die Musikgeschichte der Abtei Reichenau, 27.

⁴² Analysis of this issue and sources in Maurer, ‘Rechtlicher Anspruch’, 269–70; Anna Rutkowska-Płachcińska, ‘Pasje świętych Wojciecha i Brunona z tzw. kodeksu z Tegernsee’, Studia Źródłoznawcze 40 (2002): 19–41 (22); Michałowski, The Gniezno Summit, 136.

⁴³ Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Canon. liturg. 319, fol. 18r. On this manuscript see Martin Kauffmann, ‘An Ottonian Sacramentary in Oxford’, in Belief and Culture in the Middle Ages: Studies Presented to Henry Mayr-Harting, eds. Richard Gameson and Henrietta Leyser (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 170–86.

⁴⁴ Friedrich Bethgen, ed., Dedicatio ecclesiae s. Adalberti Augiensis. MGH SS 30:2 (Leipzig: Hiersemann, 1934), 774–5. More on this: Maurer, ‘Rechtlicher Anspruch’, 269–70.

⁴⁵ Gerd Althoff, Otto III, trans. Phyllis G. Jestice (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 109.

⁴⁶ Husmann, Tropen- und Sequenzenhandschriften, 58 (the book produced for Reichenau); Peter K. Klein, ‘Zu einigen Reichenauer Handschriften Heinrichs II. für Bamberg’, Bericht des historischen Vereins für die Pflege der Geschichte des ehemaligen Fürstbistums Bamberg 120 (1984): 417–22; Hoffmann, Buchkunst, 1: 312: ‘Die Reichenauer Gebrauchsspuren machen es nicht sehr wahrscheinlich, dass das Buch in den Besitz Ottos III. gelangt ist; es scheint, wie ja auch die Texte ausweisen, zunächst für das Inselkloster selbst bestimmt gewesen zu sein’; Bücker, Liturgical Theology, 19. Different propositions are found in Schramm, Mütterich, Denkmale, 160; Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 1: 154–5 for the claim that Lit. 5 could have been produced for emperor Otto III himself.

⁴⁷ Hoffmann, Bamberger, 32, 64–5: ‘DH II 234 er ist jedoch identisch mit der Nachtragshand R von Lit. 5’; Hoffmann, Bamberger, 144: ‘I ist der Notar Ba.II; R hat die Bamberger Ukr. 63 geschrieben’; Hoffmann, Buchkunst, 1: 349.

⁴⁸ Similarly Schramm and Mütherich, Denkmale, 160; Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 1: 154; Klaper, Die Musikgeschichte, 33.

⁴⁹ Henry Parkes, ‘Henry II, Liturgical Patronage and the Birth of the Romano-German Pontifical’, Early Medieval Europe 28:1 (2020): 101–41.

⁵⁰ Philipp Jaffé, ed., Dedicatio ecclesiae sancti Petri Babenbergensis. MGH SS 17 (Hannover: Hahn, 1861), 636. Cf. Karl J. Benz, Untersuchungen zur politischen Bedeutung der Kirchweihe unter Teilnahme der deutschen Herrscher im hohen Mittelalter: Ein Beitrag zum Studium des Verhältnisses zwischen weltlicher Macht und kirchlicher Wirklichkeit unter Otto III und Heinrich II (Kallmünz: Lassleben, 1975), 122–44, esp. 140.

⁵¹ Trier, Bistumsarchiv, MS 402, fol. 69v.

⁵² Kowalewicz, ‘Najstarsza sekwencja’, 34.

⁵³ On the establishment of churches linked with St Adalbert’s cult see: Mathilde Uhlirz, Die älteste Lebensbeschreibung des Heiligen Adalbert (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1957), 79, note 10; Benz, Untersuchungen, 75–92; Maurer, ‘Rechtlicher Anspruch’, 270; Ludwig Fleckenstein, Otto III und Aachen (Hannover: Hahn, 1998), 119–24; Teresa Dunin-Wąsowicz, ‘Le culte de saint Adalbert vers l’an 1000 et la fondation de l’église Saint-Adalbert à Liège’, in La collégiale Saint-Jean de Liège, mille ans d’art et d’histoire, ed. Joseph Deckers (Liège: Mardaga, 1981), 35–8; Jürgen Hoffmann, ‘Der Adalbertskult im Aachener Marienstift’, Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 62 (2006): 607–17.

⁵⁴ Jadwiga Karwasińska, ed., Św. Wojciecha biskupa i męczennika żywot pierwszy. MPH s.n. 4:1 (Warszawa: PWN, 1962), (hereafter: Vita prior), 25, p. 38 (redaction A, also in different phrasing: Palaniorum, Pvlaniorum, Polaniorum, Poloniorum, Bolaniorum, Polonorum, Polonorum); 26, p. 64 (redaction B, also as Poloniorum); 26, p. 81 (redaction C, also as Polonorum, Palaniorum); Jadwiga Karwasińska, ed., Św. Wojciecha biskupa i męczennika Żywot drugi napisany przez Brunona z Kwerfurtu. MPH s.n. 4:2 (Warszawa: PWN, 1969), (hereafter: Vita altera), longer redaction: 10, p. 8 (Polani, Poloni); 25, p. 32 (Poloni); 30, p. 35 (Poloni); shorter redaction: 10, p. 50 (Poloniani, Polani); 25, p. 63 (Poloni, Polani); 30, p. 66 (Polonii, Poloni, Polani). Miłosz Sosnowski, Studia nad wczesnymi żywotami św. Wojciecha – tradycja rękopiśmienna i polemika środowisk (Poznań: UAM, 2013) provides illuminating commentary on these texts and their dating.

⁵⁵ Cf. De sancto Adalberto, in Guido Maria Dreves, ed., Liturgische Reimofficien des Mittelalters. Analecta Hymnica 5 (Leipzig: Fues, 1889), 99–102 (though based on much later manuscripts); Jerzy Morawski, ed., Historia rymowana o św. Wojciechu “Benedic regem cunctorum” (Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1979) (based on earlier manuscripts than that edited by Dreves, but still the ones much distanced from the year 1000); cf. Jerzy Pikulik, Święty Wojciech w polskiej muzyce średniowiecznej (Warszawa: 1996), esp. 15–122. On the employment of Vita prior in St Adalbert’s offices, see Jadwiga Karwasińska, ‘Wstęp’, in Vita prior, p. vi. Cf. Pikulik, Święty Wojciech, 25. The antiphon Benedic regem cunctorum is earlier than the extant offices for St Adalbert. However, the origins of the antiphon and the historiae of St Adalbert require further attention. More on these problems in Jakub Kubieniec, ‘Akwizgrański przekaz Ad festa pretiosi,’ Muzyka 45:2 (2000): 81–7.

⁵⁶ Guy Philippart, Les légendiers latins et autres manuscrits hagiographiques, Typologie des sources du Moyen Âge occidental 24–25 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1977); Baudouin de Gaiffier, ‘À propos des légendiers latins’, Analecta Bollandiana 97 (1979): 60–8; François Dolbeau, ‘Notes sur l’organisation interne des légendiers latins’, in Hagiographie, cultures et sociétés IV^e–XII^e siècles: Actes du colloque organisé à Nanterre et à Paris (2–5 mai 1979), ed. collective (Paris: Études augustiniennes, 1981), 22; Teresa Webber, Reading in the Refectory: Monastic Practice in England, c. 1000–c.1300, 18, 26, 41–6 (unpublished paper: London University Annual John Coffin Memorial Palaeography Lecture of 18 February 2010, available: https://www.academia.edu/9489001/Reading_in_the_Refectory_Monastic_Practice_in_England_c._1000-c.1300, accessed 22 November 2019). Twelfth-century Roman practice described in Ludwig Fischer, ed., Bernhardi cardinalis et Lateranensis ecclesiae prioris ordo officiorum ecclesiae lateranensis (München: Datterer, 1916), 127: ‘De vita ipsius [sancti Pauli] a beato Hieronymo conscripta facimus IIII lectiones et ad mensam finitur’; 152: ‘Ad matutinum legitur Vita eius [sancti Augustini] et in refectorio finitur’.

⁵⁷ Duczko, Ruś wikingów, 170–4; Stanisław Rosik, ‘Opolini, Golensizi, Lupiglaa. Ziemia opolsko-raciborska we wczesnym średniowieczu (uwagi w sprawie dyskusji historyków)’, in Sacra Silentii provincia. 800 lat dziedzicznego księstwa opolskiego (1202–2002), ed. Anna Pobóg-Lenartowicz (Opole: WT UO, 2003), 33–4; Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype, 143; Żmudzki, ‘Kulturowy kontekst’, 165–220.

⁵⁸ Pleszczyński, The Birth of a Stereotype, 109–222, esp. 143. On the expertise of Slavonic in the Empire: Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar, 2:37, pp. 85–6, and the famous Freising fragments preserved in München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 6426, fol. 78r–v, 158v–161v, published in Matija Ogrin and Tomaž Erjavec, eds., Brižinski Spomeniki, Monumenta Frisingensia (Freising Manuscripts) (Ljubljana: Institute of Slovenian Literature and Literary Studies, 2007), online version at http://nl.ijs.si/e-zrc/bs/index-en.html, accessed 27 May 2022. Some scholars claimed even that the new name, Polonia, was brought from the Empire and was derived from the fact that Bolesław’s Slavs had been baptized: Johannes Fried, ‘Der hl. Adalbert und Gnesen’, Archiv für mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte 50 (1998): 41–70 and idem, Święty Wojciech i Polska, trans. Maciej Dorna (Poznań: IH UAM, 2001). Similar to some extent is Christian Lübke, ‘Qui sint vel unde huc venerint?” – Bemerkungen zur Herkunft der Namen von Polen und Liutizen’, in Die Suche nach den Ursprüngen: Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters, ed. Walter Pohl (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2004), 37–44. However, the arguments on Polonia as derived from Slavic term polewać, and linked with Poland’s baptism, are quite problematic as they are rooted in much later source material, see Żmudzki, ‘Kulturowy kontekst nazw’, 166–94.

⁵⁹ Suchodolski, ‘Orzeł czy paw?’, 165; Marcin Bogucki, ‘Nieznana hybryda denara PRINCES POLONIE i nowy typ monety Bolesława Chrobrego’, Wiadomości Numizmatyczne 50:2 (2006): 189; Stanisław Suchodolski, ‘Początki polskiego mennictwa w świetle nowszych badań’, Slavia Antiqua 60 (2019): 192–219, esp. 194. According to Mateusz Bogucki, the coin PRINCES POLONIE was foremost an object of prestige, with other types of coins during the reign of Bolesław having the economic function: Mateusz Bogucki, ‘Oryginalność i wtórność mennictwa polskiego w X–XII wieku’, in Oryginalność i wtórność, eds. Michałowski and Pac, p. 212.

⁶⁰ L.J. Crampton claimed to identify the earliest testimony to Septuagesima Sunday in one of the homilies of Gregory the Great: L.J. Crampton, ‘St Gregory’s Homily XIX and the Institution of Septuagesima Sunday’, The Downside Review 86:283 (1968): 162–6 (the homily extant in the high medieval manuscript).

⁶¹ Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar, 8:2, p. 495. Translation by David A. Warner, Ottonian Germany: The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 362.

⁶² The analysis of this issue with relevant sources is found in Roman Michałowski, ‘Post dziewięciotygodniowy w Polsce Chrobrego. Studium z dziejów polityki religijnej pierwszych Piastów’, Kwartalnik Historyczny 109:1 (2002): 5–40; idem, ‘Chrystianizacja monarchii piastowskiej w X–XI wieku’, in Animarum cultura. Studia nad kulturą religijną na ziemiach polskich w średniowieczu, eds. Halina Manikowska and Wojciech Brojer (Warszawa: IH PAN, 2008), 11–50. For the English version of the texts see Roman Michałowski, ‘The Nine-week Lent in Boleslaus the Brave’s Poland. A Study of the First Piasts’ Religious Policy’, Acta Poloniae Historica 89 (2004): 5–50. The question remains about the putative influence of the Eastern practice on early medieval Poland regarding the abstinence from meat already on the Monday after the Septuagesima Sunday. In antiquity and the early Middle Ages, in selected Eastern Churches, Lent started either on Monday after the eighth (Sexagesima) or ninth (Septuagesima) Sunday before Easter. For more on this see: Franz X. Funk, Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen, vol. 1 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 1897), 266–7, 277; Winfried Böhne, ‘Beginn und Dauer der römischen Fastenzeit im sechsten Jahrhundert’, Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 77 (1966): 224–37, esp. 233–4. However, it is not possible to establish exactly on which day the abstinence from meat started in late tenth- and early eleventh-century Rus’, on which the realm of Bolesław bordered. Moreover, no other evidence exists about the direct and intense influence of Greek Christianity on early medieval Polonia, e.g., no direct Greek influence on the Slavonic language in tenth- and eleventh-century Bohemia can be proven, according to Miroslav Vepřek, Czech Church Slavonic in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries (München: Lincom, 2022), 57–62. Therefore, Michałowski’s analysis of fasting as a political broker requires further attention.

⁶³ Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar, 6:92, pp. 384–5. More on this passage: Zbigniew Dalewski, ‘Pokuta Bolesława Chrobrego’, in Księga: teksty o świecie średniowiecznym ofiarowane Hannie Zaremskiej (Warszawa: IH PAN, 2018), 73–101.

⁶⁴ The finds from Ostrów Lednicki are described in Trzeciecki, ‘The Emergence of the Territorial State’, 326. Cf. Janusz Górecki, Ostrów Lednicki pod niebem średniowiecza (Lednica: Muzeum Pierwszych Piastów na Lednicy, 2011), 27, 30. Also in Ostrów Tumski in Poznań there were archeological finds of early Piast objects of possible liturgical function: Hanna Koćka-Krenz, ‘Archeologiczne świadectwa o najstarszych świątyniach na Ostrowie Tumskim w Poznaniu’, Ecclesia. Studia z Dziejów Wielkopolski 2 (2006): 28–31.

⁶⁵ Cf. Allan Bouley, From Freedom to Formula: The Evolution of the Eucharistic Prayer from Oral Improvisation to Written Texts (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1981), 200–15; Cyrille Vogel, Medieval Liturgy: Introduction to the Sources, eds. William G. Storey and Niels K. Rasmussen (Washington, DC: Pastoral Press, 1986), 4, 102–6.

⁶⁶ Paenitentiale Cummeani in The Irish Penitentials, ed. Ludwig Bieler (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1963), 11:29, p. 132. About this text and its reference to the Canon of the Mass, especially the institution narrative, see Raymund Kottje, ‘“Oratio Periculosa” – Eine frühmittelalterliche Bezeichnung des Kanons?’, Archiv für Liturgiewissenschaft 10 (1967): 165–8; Raymund Kottje, ‘Das älteste Zeugnis für das “Paenitentiale Cummeani”’, Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 61:2 (2005): 585–89; Balthasar Fischer, ‘“Oratio periculosa”: Eine altirische Bezeichnung für die Einsetzungsworte in der Messe’, in Prex Eucharistica, vol. 3: Studia, eds. Albert Gerhards, Heinzgerd Brakmann, and Martin Klöckener (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2005), 237–41.

⁶⁷ Georg Waitz, ed., Vita Anskarii auctore Rimberto. MGH SRG 55 (Hannover: Hahn, 1988), 10, p. 32: ‘inter quae et pene 40 libros, quos ad servitium Dei sibi aggregaverrant, illis diripientibus amiserunt’. Passio s. Vencezlai incipiens verbis Crescente fide christiana, in Jaroslav Ludvíkovský, ed., ‘Nove zjištený rukopis legendy Crescente fide a jeho význam pro datování Kristiána’, Listy filologické 81 (1958): 56–68, at 60: ‘In tempore autem illo multi sacerdotes de provincia Bawariorum et Suevia, audientes famam de eo, confluebant cum reliquiis sanctorum et libris ad eum’; Karwasińska, ed., Vita prior, 28, p. 41. More on the books linked with the saintly figures from the region: Joanna Nastalska, ‘Sanctus et liber. Obecność książki w żywotach polskich i czeskich świętych (IX–XIV wiek)’, in Kościół w monarchiach Przemyślidów i Piastów. Materiały z konferencji naukowej Gniezno 21–24 września 2006 roku, ed. Józef Dobosz (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 2009), 352.

⁶⁸ Vogel, Medieval Liturgy, 70–106, esp. 102–06; Éric Palazzo, A History of Liturgical Books from the Beginning to the Thirteenth Century, trans. Madeleine Beaumont (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1998), 35–55; Christoph Winterer, Das Fuldaer Sakramentar in Göttingen. Benediktinische Oberservanz und römische Liturgie (Petersberg: Imhof, 2009), 287–8.

⁶⁹ The sacramentaries and missals were personally examined in the following libraries: Berlin, Staatsbibliothek. Preußischer Kulturbesitz; Collegeville, MN, Hill Museum and Manuscript Library (microfilms); Cologne, Erzbischöfliche Diözesan- und Dombibliothek (via Codices Electronici Ecclesiae Coloniensis); Düsseldorf, Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek; Hildesheim, Dom-Museum; Ivrea, Biblioteca Capitolare; London, British Library; München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (via bsb-muenchen.de and personally); Oxford, Bodleian Library; Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève; Roma, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Biblioteca Vallicelliana, Biblioteca Casanatense, Biblioteca Angelica; St. Gallen, Stifstbibliothek (via e-codices); Wien, Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek; Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek. Moreover, I have received insight into the content of various liturgical manuscripts in the following publications: Adalbert Ebner, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte und Kunstgeschichte des Missale romanum im Mittelalter: Iter italicum (Freiburg i.B: Herder, 1896); Victor Leroquais, Les sacramentaires et les missels manuscrits des bibliothèques publiques de France, 3 vols (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1924); Klaus Gamber, Codices Liturgici Latini Antiquiores, 2 vols (Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, 1968); Ildar H. Garipzanov, The Symbolic Language of Authority in the Carolingian World (c. 751–877) (Leiden: Brill, 2008), esp. 44–100 and the appendices. Up to c. 1000 over 400 codices, fragments, and palimpsests of sacramentaries and missals have been identified by Paweł Figurski and Arthur Westwell [A Provisional List of the Latin Sacramentaries and Missals until c.1000 (Codices, Fragments, and Palimpsests] with plans to publish the list in due course.

⁷⁰ Cf. Ludwig Biehl, Das liturgische Gebet für Kaiser und Reich: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Verhältnisses von Kirche und Staat (Paderborn: Schöningh, 1937), 78–9; Ildar H. Garipzanov, Symbolic Language, 53, 71–5, 84; Rennie S. Choy, Intercessory Prayer and the Monastic Ideal in the Time of the Carolingian Reforms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 131–61.

⁷¹ Recently on the manuscript and its provenance: Rosamond McKitterick, ‘The Work of the Scribes in the Prague Sacramentary, Prague, Archiv Pražského hradu, MS O. 83’, in The Prague Sacramentary. Culture, Religion, and Politics in Late Eighth-Century Bavaria, eds. Maximilian Diesenberger, Rob Meens, and Els Rose (Turnhout: Brepols, 2015), 13–42; Yitzhak Hen, ‘The Liturgy of the Prague Sacramentary’, in The Prague Sacramentary, eds. Diesenberger, Meens, and Rose, 79–94.

⁷² Bernhard Bischoff, ‘Die paläographische Untersuchung’, in Das Prager Sakramentar, vol. 2: Prolegomena und Textausgabe, eds. Alban Dold and Leo Eizenhöfer (Beuron: Beuroner Kunstverlag, 1949), 37.

⁷³ Das Prager Sakramentar, 91, p. 52* (orationes sollemnes), 246, p. 136* (missa pro regibus). Cf. Philippe Depreux, ‘La prière pour les rois et le status regni dans le sacramentaire de Prague et l’attention portée par Charlemagne au salut de la communauté politique’, in The Prague Sacramentary, eds. Diesenberger, Meens, and Rose, 181–202. It is worth noting that the tradition of praying for a ruler in the Exultet finale was propagated in the Carolingian realm after the Sacramentary of Prague had been produced. More on the latter phenomenon in Paweł Figurski, ‘The Exultet of Bolesław II of Mazovia and the Sacralisation of Political Power in the High Middle Ages’, in Premodern Rulership and Contemporary Political Power: The King’s Body Never Dies, eds. Karolina Mroziewicz and Aleksander Sroczyński (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2017), 90–7.

⁷⁴ Louis Duchesne, ed., Liber pontificalis, vol. 1 (Paris: Boccard, 1955), 392. See analysis of the issue in Garpizanov, Symbolic Language, 1.

⁷⁵ Michel Andrieu, ed., Les ordines romani du haut Moyen Age, vol. 3 (Leuven: Spicilegium Sacrum Lovaniense, 1951), 129, p. 121: ‘Die autem dominica non celebrantur agendas mortuorum nec nomina eorum ad missas recitantur, sed tantum vivorum nomina regum vel principum seu et sacerdotum, vel pro omni populo christiano oblationes vel vota redduntur.’

⁷⁶ Ernst H. Kantorowicz, ‘Invocatio Nominis Imperatoris: On vv. 21–25 of Cielo d’Alcamo’s Contrasto’, Bollettino. Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani 3 (1955): 35–50.

⁷⁷ Rita Costa Gomes, ‘Invoking the Name of the King: Context and Meaning in Late Medieval Portugal’, in Political Theology in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Discourses, Rites, and Representations, eds. Montserrat Herrero, Jaume Aurell, and Angela C. Miceli Stout (Turnhout: Brepols, 2017), 229–44, describes how in 1470, Joao and Maria Afonso, having been attacked by an aggressor, shouted the formula ‘aqui d’el-rei’ wrongly and substituted the word ‘el-rei’ with the name of a local potentate. In consequence of this wrongdoing, they were investigated by a royal official, and expelled from their community, because the invocatio nominis was reserved for the king alone.

⁷⁸ Cf. note 25. See also Zygmunt Świechowski, Architektura romańska w Polsce (Warszawa: DiG, 2000), 13–23; Dariusz Sikorski, Wczesnopiastowska architektura sakralna (jako źródło historyczne dla dziejów Kościoła w Polsce) (Poznań: PTPN, 2012); Marta Graczyńska, Monika Kamińska, ‘Architektura monastyczna w Polsce do końca XI w. Nowe spojrzenie’, in Średniowieczna architektura sakralna w Polsce w świetle nowych badań, eds. Tomasz Janiak and Dariusz Stryniak (Gniezno: Muzeum Początków Państwa Polskiego, 2014), 47–66.

⁷⁹ Jadwiga Karwasińska, ed., Vita quinque fratrum eremitarum [seu] Vita uel passio Benedicti et Iohannis sociorumque suorum auctore Brunone Querfurtensi. MPH s.n. 4:3 (Warszawa: PWN, 1973) 13, p. 65.

⁸⁰ Wojciech Chudziak, ‘Die Kirche im Burgwall von Kałdus bei Kulm (Chełmno)’, in Europas Mitte um 1000, eds. Wieczorek and Hinz, 330–1; Chudziak, Wczesnośredniowieczna przestrzeń sakralna “in Culmine” na Pomorzu Nadwiślańskim (Toruń: UMK, 2003), 86–97.

⁸¹ Michałowski, ‘Pałace monarsze’, 454–67, esp. 466–7.

⁸² Michałowski, The Gniezno Summit, esp. 81–95 with references to relevant sources and earlier discussion.

⁸³ Marek Derwich, Monastycyzm benedyktyński w średniowiecznej Europie i Polsce. Wybrane problemy (Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1998), 175–8; Derwich, ‘Studia nad początkami monastycyzmu na ziemiach polskich. Pierwsze opactwa i ich funkcje’, Kwartalnik Historyczny 107:2 (2000): 77–105. Recently on Międzyrzecz with various hypotheses on its religious character (hermitage or monastery) and its early history, see Tomasz Jurek, ‘Ad Mestris Locum: Where Was the Monastery Founded by Saint Adalbert Situated?’ Acta Poloniae Historica 103 (2011): 5–29; Miłosz Sosnowski, ‘Anonimowa Passio s. Adalperti martiris (BHL 40) oraz Wiperta Historia de predicatione episcopi Brunonis (BHL 1471b) – komentarz, edycja, przekład’ Rocznik Biblioteki Narodowej 43 (2012): 5–74, esp. at 41–44. On the diplomatic involvement of Bolesław’s Abbot T(h)uni see Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar, 7:20–21, pp. 422–23 and 8:33, pp. 530–31.

⁸⁴ On the liturgical books in the hermitage of the Five Brothers see Karwasińska, ed., Vita Quinque Fratrum Eremitarum, 4, p. 39: ‘preparans imperator, omnibus necesssariis rite ordinatis’, and 13, p. 65: ‘[Latrones] scisso missatico paramento, quod sancti uiri cum optimis libris, quorum nil tetigerunt, de Latina terra dono imperatoris secum adduxerunt’. On the liturgical books of St Adalbert: Karwasińska, ed., Vita prior, 28, p. 41; Karwasińska, ed., Vita altera, 25, p. 31.

⁸⁵ For example, Gniezno, Archwium Archidiecezjalne, MS 1 (9th c. Gospel Books), and Kraków, Archiwum Krakowskiej Kapituły Katedralnej, MS 140 (43) (c. 800, Homiliary with varied material, including para-liturgical). These earlier manuscripts are preserved in the ecclesiastical libraries in the dioceses, whose origins go back to c. 1000, but it is not easy to argue for the late tenth- and early eleventh-century provenance of these codices in early medieval Poland. More secure seems the post 1030s Polish provenance of MS 140 (43) because there is apparently an eleventh-century addition of the name ARON EPISCOPUS (fol. 3r), at times identified with the eleventh-century Aaron, Bishop of Kraków, or Abbot of Tyniec near Kraków of the same name. For more on this see Brygida Kürbis, Jerzy Wolny, and Danuta Zydorek, eds., Kazania na różne dni postne i inne teksty z kodeksu krakowskiego 140 (43). Praedicationes per diversa ieiunia et varia e codice Cracoviensi 140 (43), MSP 4 (Kraków: Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 2010), 20 (on the manuscript’s provenance), 132–8 (on the 11th c. addition). Recently on the problematic identification of ARON EPISCOPUS see Roman Michałowski, ‘Aaron von Krakau und die Gründung der Abtei Tyniec’, in Das Sakramentar aus Tyniec. Eine Prachthandschrift des 11. Jahrhunderts und die Beziehungen zwischen Köln und Krakau in der Zeit Kasimir des Erneuerers, eds. Klaus Gereon Beuckers and Andreas Bihrer (Köln: Böhlau, 2018), 292–306, esp. 302–3.

⁸⁶ Based on the Międzyrzecz example, see Andrzej Pleszczyński, ‘Bolesław Chrobry konfratrem eremitów św. Romualda w Międzyrzeczu’, Kwartalnik Historyczny 103:1 (1996): 3–22. For other Polish centers, their liturgical service, and political ideology: Derwich, ‘Studia nad początkami monastycyzmu’, 77–105, esp. 95–9; Roman Michałowski, ‘Princeps fundator. Monarchische Stiftungen und politische Kultur im piastischen Polen (10.–13. Jahrhundert)’ in Monarchische und adlige Sakralstiftungen im mittelalterlichen Polen, ed. Eduard Mühle (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2012), 37–108, esp. 37–70.

⁸⁷ E.g., Karwasińska, ed., Vita prior, 27, p. 40; Karwasińska, ed., Vita altera, 21, p. 26; 23, p. 28; 24, p. 29; Karwasińska, ed., Vita quinque fratrum eremitarum, 11, p. 56; 13, p. 63.

⁸⁸ Miłosz Sosnowski, ‘Kilka uwag o chronologii życia i twórczości Brunona z Kwerfurtu’, Roczniki Historyczne 82 (2016): 63–78.

⁸⁹ Jadwiga Karwasińska, ed., Epistola Brunonis ad Henricum regem. MPH s.n. 4:3 (Warszawa: PWN, 1973), 101, 106.

⁹⁰ More on this issue in Figurski, ‘Sacramental Kingship’, 57–8.

⁹¹ Kürbis, ed., Kodeks Matyldy, 139 (Codex Mathildis, fol. 2v–3r (olim), now the lost leaf, the text reconstructed based on the nineteenth-century excerpts); Karwasińska, ed., Vita altera, 21, 60.

⁹² For the analysis of this issue with a conclusion that there was the Sunday Mass obligation in Piast Poland see Izabela Skierska, Obowiązek mszalny w średniowiecznej Polsce (Warszawa: IH PAN, 2003), 43–7.

⁹³ Kürbis, ed., Kodeks Matyldy, 139 (Codex Mathildis, fol. 3r (olim), now the lost leaf, the text reconstructed based on the nineteenth-century excerpts): ‘nam quos praedicatores corrigere non poterant uerbo ille insecutus est ferro, compelens ad caenam dominicam barbaras ac ferocissimas nationes’.

⁹⁴ Skierska, Obowiązek mszalny, 20–5.

⁹⁵ Regarding the Eucharist in general, see 1 Cor. 11:20. In reference to the liturgy of Maundy Thursday see Augustine, Epistula 54, ed. Alois Goldbacher. Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 34:2 (Wien: Tempsky & Freytag, 1898), 168; Wilfried Hartmann, ed., Concilium Meaux-Paris, a. 845, Iun. et 846, Febr. MGH Concilia 3 (Hannover: Hahn, 1984), 46, p. 107; Walter von Arx, ed., Rituale monasterii Biburgensis (Budapest, Cod. lat. m. ae. Nr. 330, saec. XII). Spicilegium Friburgense 14 (Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, 1970), 289.

⁹⁶ Holtzmann, ed., Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar, 2:37, pp. 85–6.

⁹⁷ München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 6426, fol. 78r–v, 158v–161v, published in Ogrin and Erjavec, eds., Brižinski Spomeniki, Monumenta Frisingensia, http://nl.ijs.si/e-zrc/bs/index-en.html, accessed 27 May 2022.

⁹⁸ Cf. Antonín Dostál, ‘The Origins of the Slavonic Liturgy’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 19 (1965): 67–87; Nina Glibetić, ‘The “New Finds” Glagolitic Manuscripts as Sources for Medieval Serbian Liturgical History’, in Вера и мисао у вртлогу времена. Међународни зборник радова у част митрополита Амфилохија (Радовића) и епископа Атанасија (Јевтића), eds. Andrej Jeftić, Mikonja Knežević, and Rade Kisić (Beograd: Pravoslavni bogoslovski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, 2021), 187–200.

⁹⁹ David Kalhous, ‘Slawisches Schrifttum und Liturgie des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts’, in Frühmittelalterliche Kirchen als archäologische und historische Quelle, eds. Lumír Poláček and Jana Maříková-Kubková (Brno: Archäologisches Institut der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Tschechischen Republik, 2010), 385–402.

¹⁰⁰ Codex Mathildis, fol. 2v: ‘Quis in laudem dei totidem coadunauit linguas? Cum in propria et in latina deum digne uenerari posses, in hoc tibi non satis, grecam superaddere maluisti’. Earlier attempts to prove the existence of the Slavonic liturgy in Piast Poland were quite unsuccessful: cf. Stephen Smržík, The Glagolitic or Roman-Slavonic Liturgy (Rome: Slovak Institute, 1959), esp. 107–9; Karolina Lanckorońska, Studies on the Roman-Slavonic Rite in Poland (Rome: Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 1961) and recently Antoni Mironowicz, ‘Chrzest Polski z różnych perspektyw’, Rocznik Teologiczny 1 (2017): 37–74. At any rate, the Slavonic anaphorae were largely the translations/adaptations of the Byzantine and Roman anaphorae: Smržík, The Glagolitic or Roman-Slavonic Liturgy, 41–6 and 96–119; Dostál, ‘The Origins of the Slavonic Liturgy’, 67–87; Kristijan Kuhar, ‘Utjecaj tekstova latinskih rimskih sakramentara na crkvenoslavensku rimsku liturgiju (9.–14. stoljeće)’, Slovo: Časopis Staroslavenskoga instituta u Zagrebu 68 (2018), 171–97.

¹⁰¹ Karwasińska, ed., Vita prior, 27, pp. 40–1; Karwasińska, ed., Vita altera, 24, p. 30.

¹⁰² Maximilian Diesenberger, Predigt und Politik im frühmittelalterlichen Bayern: Arn von Salzburg, Karl der Große und die Salzburger Sermones-Sammlung (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2016), 175–92.

¹⁰³ Karwasińska, ed., Vita Quinque Fratrum Eremitarum, 10, p. 54: ‘iamque Sclauonicam linguam intelligere et satis bene loqui paratum habebat’.

¹⁰⁴ Donald Bullough, ‘The Carolingian Liturgical Experience’, Studies in Church History 35 (1999): 29–64, esp. 62–3; Michael McCormick, ‘The Liturgy of War in the Early Middle Ages: Crisis, Litanies, and the Carolingian Monarchy’, Viator 15 (1984): 1–23, esp. 11.

¹⁰⁵ Wulfstan of Winchester, The Life of St Aethelwold, eds. Michael Lapidge and Michael Winterbottom (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 4–5, pp. 6–8. In the Piast lands, much later (mid-twelfth-century) the Płock Bible, Płock, Biblioteka Seminaryjna, MS EPl 1, fol. 239v provides an insight into the experience of the Christian religion by the laity. An added text tells of a miracle that occurred in Płock in 1148. A certain Wojucha, iuvencula contracta et semipes, was cured in the Płock cathedral by the Virgin Mary before Prime on the Assumption feast day. It is not clear whether Wojucha remained in the cathedral after the Vigil held on the previous day or participated in Lauds before Prime, but she was found penitus erecta within the cathedral church just before the celebration of the liturgy was about to happen. In the source, we do not hear the voice of Wojucha, but after the miracle occurred, factus est concursus populorum, who praised with loud voices Mary and Christ for the great deed. The analysis of this and other information contained in the Płock miracles: Krzysztof Skwierczyński, ‘The Beginnings of the Cult of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Poland in the Light of the Płock Accounts of Miracles from 1148’, Studi medievali 53 (2012): 117–62.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by National Science Center, Poland [Narodowe Centrum Nauki, Polska, Sonatina, grant number 2018/28/C/HS3/00464].

Notes on contributors

Paweł Figurski

Paweł Figurski is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Art, Polish Academy of Sciences, and the Humboldt Research Fellow at the University of Regensburg (2022–2024). His research focuses on the history of political-theological thought and practice in medieval Europe. He is the co-editor of the recently published volume: Political Liturgies in the High Middle Ages: Beyond the Legacy of Ernst H. Kantorowicz (Turnhout, 2021) and numerous articles on manuscript culture, medieval liturgy, and the history of art. Figurski has been awarded fellowships by the Fulbright Commission and Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung, among others. In 2019–21 he was also a Postdoctoral Society Member at Trinity College, Cambridge. Currently, Figurski is PI of the project Liturgica Poloniae (2022-2027) conducted at the Institute of Art, Polish Academy of Sciences.