Cybercriminals and Coronavirus cybercrimes in Nigeria, the United States of America and the United Kingdom: cyber hygiene and preventive enforcement measures

Abstract

There seems to be no lockdown for cybercriminals who are capitalizing on the global lockdown to perpetrate cyber coronavirus crimes. Qualitatively, this paper examines these crimes, their peculiarities, and how they can be curtailed. Although the United States of America (US) and the United Kingdom (UK) have put in place cyber hygiene and preventive enforcement measures to curtail the activities of cybercriminals in cyberspace, the same cannot be said of Nigeria. Arguably, cybercrime institutions in Nigeria lack adequate capacity building, professional competence, and inter-agency cooperation concerning cyber coronavirus crimes. Consequently, it calls for the adaptation of the US and UK measures to protect cybercitizens.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Chenglei Yang, Xue Qiu, Haoran Fan, Mei Jiang, Xiaojie Lao, Yukeng Zeng & Zhiming Zhang, ‘Coronavirus disease 2019: reassembly attack of coronavirus,’ (2020) International Journal of Environmental Health Research, DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2020.1747602, 1; Asim Biswas, Uttaran Bhattacharjee, Alok Kumar Chakrabarti, Devendra Nath Tewari, Hasina Banu & Shanta Dutta, ‘Emergence of Novel Coronavirus and COVID-19: Whether to Stay or Die Out?,’ (2020) Critical Reviews in Microbiology, DOI: 10.1080/1040841X.2020.1739001,1; Cristie Columbus, Karen B. Brust & Alejandro C. Arroliga, ‘2019 Novel Coronavirus: An Emerging Global Threat,’ (2020) 33(2) Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, 209–212 at 209–210.

2 Ibid.

3 Cristie Columbus et al., (n 1)

4 Ibid.; Chenglei Yang et al., (n 1) at 6–7 – (‘The outbreak is a public health emergency, spreading rapidly and requiring effective drug treatment or vaccine prevention…there are no effective preventive drugs and vaccines now.’); Asim Biswas et al., (n 1) at 2,3,6.

5 Ibid.

6 The 213 Countries is based on the WHO concepetualization.

7 World Health Organization (WHO), ‘Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) outbreak situation,’ available at <https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019> last accessed 29 Augustl 2020.

8 WHO, US, available at <https://covid19.who.int/region/amro/country/us> last accessed 29 August 2020.

9 WHO, Brazil, available at <https://covid19.who.int/region/amro/country/br> last accessed 29 Auguatl 2020. Brazil recorded its first case on 26 February 2020.

10 WHO, India, available at <https://covid19.who.int/region/searo/country/in> last accessed 28 April 2020. India recorded her first case on 30 January 2020.

11 WHO, Russian Federation, available at <https://covid19.who.int/region/euro/country/ru> last accessed 29 August 2020. Russian Federation recorded her first case on 31 January 2020.

12 WHO, South Africa, available at <https://covid19.who.int/region/afro/country/za> last accessed 29 August 2020. South Africa recorded her first case on 5 March 2020.

13 Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), ‘An update of COVID-19 outbreak in Nigeria,’available at < https://ncdc.gov.ng/diseases/sitreps/?cat=14&name=An%20update%20of%20COVID-19%20outbreak%20in%20Nigeria> last accessed 28 April 2020.

14 NCDC, ‘Case Summary in Nigeria as of April 27th 2020,’ available at <https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/> last accessed 29 Augustl 2020.

15 Chenglei Yang et al., (n 1) at 6–7

16 Cristie Columbus et al., (n 1) at 1–3.

17 Presidential Proclamation, Proclamation on Declaring a National Emergency Concerning the Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak, 13 March 2020, available at <https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/proclamation-declaring-national-emergencyconcerning-novel-coronavirus-disease-covid-19-outbreak/> last accessed 29 April 2020.

18 Ibid.,–(‘I have taken sweeping action to control the spread of the virus in the United States, including by suspending entry of foreign nationals seeking entry who had been physically present within the prior 14 days in certain jurisdictions where COVID-19 outbreaks have occurred, including the People’s Republic of China, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Schengen Area of Europe.  The Federal Government, along with State and local governments, has taken preventive and proactive measures to slow the spread of the virus and treat those affected, including by instituting Federal quarantines for individuals evacuated from foreign nations, issuing a declaration pursuant to section 319F3 of the Public Health Service Act (42 U.S.C. 247d6d), and releasing policies to accelerate the acquisition of personal protective equipment and streamline bringing new diagnostic capabilities to laboratories.’ President Trump).

19 President’s Coronavirus Guidelines for America, 16 March 2020, available at <https://www.whitehouse.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2020/03/03.16.20_coronavirus-guidance_8.5x11_315PM.pdf> last accessed 28 April 2020.

20 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, How to Protect Yourself and Others, 8 April 2020, available at <https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html> last accessed 29 April 2020.

21 The UK Coronavirus Act 2020, available at <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2020/7/contents/enacted> last accessed 29 April 2020.

22 The UK Health Protection (Coronavirus) Regulations 2020, available at <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/129/contents/made> last accessed 29 April 2020.

23 The UK Coronavirus Act 2020; See also Gibson Dunn, ‘Fraud In The Covid-19 Age: Examining And Anticipating Changing Enforcement Activity’ 8 April 2020, 3, available at <https://www.gibsondunn.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/fraud-in-the-covid-19-age-examining-and-anticipating-changing-enforcement-activity.pdf> last accessed 20 April 2020.

24 Nigeria Quarantine Act, Cap. Q2 Laws of the Federation (LFN) 2004.

25 Nigeria COVID-19 Regulations 2020, available at <https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/resource/COVID-19_REGULATIONS_2020_20200330214102.pdf> last accessed 29 April 2020.

26 Ibid.

27 NCDC, Self Isolation & Quarantine Guide, available at <https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/resource/guideline/SelfIsolation_QuarantineGuide.pdf> last accessed 29 April 2020; NCDC, ‘COVID-19: What President Buhari has Done, and is Doing,by Presidency,’ 1 April 2020, available at <https://statehouse.gov.ng/news/covid-19-what-president-buhari-has-done-and-is-doingby-presidency/> last accessed 29 April 2020.

28 United Kingdom’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) and the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), ‘Advisory: COVID-19 exploited by malicious cyber actors’ available at <https://www.us-cert.gov/ncas/alerts/aa20-099a> last accessed 20 April 2020; National Cyber Security Alliance(NCSA), ‘National Cyber Security Alliance Encourages Vigilance Against Coronavirus Scams, Best Cyber Security Practices for Remote Workers,’ available at <https://staysafeonline.org/press-release/ncsa-encourages-coronavirus-vigilance/> 12 April 2020.

29 Ibid.

30 NCA, ‘Pharmacist and surveyor arrested over coronavirus testing kits, thousands of pounds seized and website taken down,’ 15 April 2020 available at <https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/pharmacist-and-surveyor-arrested-over-coronavirus-testing-kits-thousands-of-pounds-seized-and-website-taken-down?highlight=WyJjb3JvbmF2aXJ1cyIsInNjYW1zIiwic2NhbSIsInNjYW1tZWQiLCJzY2FtbWluZyJd> last accessed 24 April 2020 – (‘Nikki Holland, NCA Director of Investigations, said: “Criminals capitalise on fear and anxiety and they will exploit any opportunity, no matter how awful, to line their pockets”.’)

31 UK NCSC DHS & CISA, (n 27); NCSA, (n 27)

32 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Assistant Administrator for Enforcement and Compliance Assurance Susan Bodine, in Department of Justice, ‘Georgia Man Arrested for Attempting to Defraud the Department of Veterans Affairs in a Multimillion-Dollar COVID-19 Scam,’ 10 April 2020 <https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/georgia-man-arrested-attempting-defraud-department-veterans-affairs-multimillion-dollar-covid> last accessed 12 April 2020.

33 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2018 Internet Crime Report, 5. Available at <https://pdf.ic3.gov/2018_IC3Report.pdf> accessed 24 August 2018.

34 The UK Coronavirus Act 2020, s.1.

35 FE Eboibi, ‘Cybercrime in a Technological Era: Definitional Controversies and Nigeria’s Historical Antecedents,’ (2017) 2(1) NSUK Law Commentaries, 43–64 at 53–54; see also FE Eboibi, ‘Chapter 2–Introduction to Law and Cybercrime,’ 23 in FE Eboibi (ed), Handbook on Nigerian Cybercrime Law, (Benin, Justice Jeco Printing and Publishing Global, 2018).

36 Ibid.

37 NCA, ‘Beware of fraud and scams during Covid-19 pandemic fraud,’ 26 March 2020, available at <https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/fraud-scams-covid19> 24 April 2020.

38 Department of Justice, ‘Georgia Man Arrested for Attempting to Defraud the Department of Veterans Affairs in a Multimillion-Dollar COVID-19 Scam,’ 10 April 2020 <https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/georgia-man-arrested-attempting-defraud-department-veterans-affairs-multimillion-dollar-covid> last accessed 12 April 2020

39 NCA, Beware of fraud, (n 37).

40 NCA, Pharmacist and surveyor arrested, (n 30).

41 NCA, Beware of fraud, (n 37).

42 NCSC & CISA, (n.28); NCSC, ‘Cyber experts step in as criminals seek to exploit Coronavirus fears – Experts at the NCSC have revealed phishing attacks exploiting worries over COVID-19,’ 16 March 2020, available at <https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/news/cyber-experts-step-criminals-exploit-coronavirus> last accessed 12 April 2020.

43 Department of Justice, Attorney General William P. Barr Urges American Public to Report COVID-19 Fraud, 22 March 2020, available at <https://www.justice.gov/> 12 April 2020; NCA, ‘National Crime Agency warn that organised crime groups may try to exploit the coronavirus outbreak to target the UK’ 22 March 2020 available at <https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/national-crime-agency-warn-that-organised-crime-groups-may-try-to-exploit-the-coronavirus-outbreak-to-target-the-uk> last accessed 24 April 2020

44 Department of Justice, Georgia Resident Arrested for Selling Illegal Products Claiming to Protect Against Viruses, April 9, 2020 <https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/georgia-resident-arrested-selling-illegal-products-claiming-protect-against-viruses> 12 April 2020; Department of Justice, Justice Department Files Its First Enforcement Action Against COVID-19 Fraud, 22 March 2020, available at <https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-files-its-first-enforcement-action-against-covid-19-fraud> last accessed12 April 2020; Missouri Attorney General Eric Schmitt, CONSUMER ALERT: Medicaid Fraud and COVID-19, Apr 17, 2020, available at <https://ago.mo.gov/home/news/2020/04/17/consumer-alert-medicaid-fraud-and-covid-19> 24 April 2020.

45 NCSC and CISA, (n 28).

46 Ellen S Podgor, ‘International Computer Fraud: A Paradigm for Limiting National Jurisdiction,’ (2002) 35 UC Davis Law Review, 279; FBI, ‘Scams and safety: Common fraud schemes,’ Available at <https://www.fbi.gov/scams-and-safety/common-fraud-schemes/internet-fraud> accessed 22 September 2019; Emile Loza, ‘Internet Fraud: Federal Trade Commission Prosecutions of Online Conduct’ (2001) 23 Communications & the Law, 55–99; Ellen S Podgor, ‘Criminal Fraud’ (1999) 48 American University Law Review, 729–768; Lucian Vasiu & Ioana Vasiu, ‘Dissecting Computer Fraud: From Definitional Issues to a Taxonomy,’ (2004) Proceedings of the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 1–8.

47 United States of America v. John Doe (a/k/a “coronavirusmedicalkit.com), United States District Court Western District of Texas Austin Division, Case No. A-20-CV-306, available at <https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1260126/download> last accessed 12 April 2020.

48 United States District Court, Northern District of Georgia, Criminal Complaint, Case Number: 1:20-MJ-00289, available at <https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1267811/download> last accessed 12 April 2020; DOJ, Georgia man arrested for selling illegal products, (n 44)

49 Ibid.

50 Ibid.

51 DOJ, Georgia Man Arrested for Attempting to Defraud the DVA, (n 38).

52 United States District Court, Southern District of Florida, Case No.: 1:20cv21601, available at <https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1269661/download> last accessed 21 April 2020.; DOJ, ‘Justice Department Seeks to End Illegal Online Sale of Industrial Bleach Marketed as “Miracle” Treatment for COVID-19,’ 17 April 2020, available at <https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-seeks-end-illegal-online-sale-industrial-bleach-marketed-miracle-treatment> last accessed 21 April 2020.

53 Ibid.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), ‘FTC, FDA Send Warning Letters to Seven Companies about Unsupported Claims that Products Can Treat or Prevent Coronavirus,’ 9 March 2020, available at <https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2020/03/ftc-fda-send-warning-letters-seven-companies-about-unsupported> last accessed 23 April 2020.

58 Ibid.

59 FTC, ‘FTC Coronavirus Warning Letters to Companies,’ available at <https://www.ftc.gov/coronavirus/enforcement/warning-letters> last accessed 23 April 2020 – (‘Santiste Labs, LLC, Hopewell Essential Oils, Copper Touch, LLC, The Art of Cure, Inc., Herbs of Kedem, Earthley Wellness (dba Modern Alternative Mama LLC), Free Speech Systems LLC, Genesis II Church of Health and Healing, CBD Online Store, Savvy Holistic Health dba Holistic Healthy Pet, Ananda, LLC DBA Ananda Apothecary, Cathay Natural, LLC, Indigo Naturals, Native Roots Hemp, Gaia’s Whole Healing Essentials, LLC, Health Mastery Systems DBA Pure Plant Essentials, Homeomart Indibuy, Neuro XPF, JRB Enterprise Group Inc., Halosense, Inc., FullerLifeC60, LLC, Corona-Cure, Carahealth, The Jim Bakker Show, Herbal Amy LLC, Vivify Holistic Clinic, GuruNanda, LLC, N-ergetics, Quinessence Aromatherapy Ltd, Vital Silver’).

60 US FDA, ‘Warning Letter: Unapproved and Misbranded Products Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) dated 9 April 2020,’ available at <https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/warning-letters/covid-19-letter_to_freespeechsystems.pdf> last accessed 23 April 2020.

61 US FDA, ‘Warning Letter: Unapproved and Misbranded Products Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) dated 27 April 2020,’ available at <https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/warning-letters/fda-covid-19-letter-santiste_labs_llc.pdf> last accessed 23 April 2020.

62 FTC, ‘FTC Coronavirus Warning Letters to Companies,’ (n 59) – (‘It Works Marketing, Inc., Modere, Inc., Pruvit Ventures, Inc., Rodan & Fields, LLC, Total Life Changes, LLC, Tranont, Zurvita, Inc., Arbonne International, LLC, doTERRA International, LLC, IDLife, LLC, TRULYHEAL Pty. Ltd., American Medical Aesthetics, AwareMed, Center for Regenerative Cell Medicine, Jiva Med Spa, Merge Medical Center, Stemedix, Inc., Absolute Health Clinic, Blessed Maine Herb Farm, Fast Relief Acupuncture, Alkaline for Life at the Center for Better Bones, Ethos Natural Medicine LLC, Greenbelt Outdoors, Personal Health Shop, Prana IV Therapy, REVIV, Windhorse Naturopathic Clinic, Abundant Life Wellness Center, Vidaful Medicine, Liquivida Lounge, RowenSu Clinic, Suki Distribution Pte. Ltd., Vita Activate, Face Vital LLC.,  New Performance Nutrition,  PuraTHRIVE LLC , Rocky Mountain IV Medics, Bioenergy Wellness Miami, LightAir International AB, Resurgence Medical Spa, LLC, MedQuick Labs, LLC.’)

63 Ibid. – (‘Connexum, USTelecom, VoIP Terminator, SIPJoin Holding Corp., Bluetone Communications, LLC, Comet Media, Inc., iFly Communications, J2 Web Services, Inc., SIPJoin Holding Corp., Third Rock Telecom, VoIPMax, VoIPTerminator, Inc., Voxbone US LLC.’)

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid.

66 NCA, NCA warn that organised crime groups may try to exploit the coronavirus outbreak to target the UK, (n 43).

67 Felix E. Eboibi & Newman U. Richards ‘Electronic taxation and cybercrimes in Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa: Lessons from Europe and the United States of America,’ (2019) 45(4) Commonwealth Law Bulletin, 716–741 at 729–730; Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015, s,22; Y.D.U Hambali, ‘Prosecuting Perpetrators of Identity Theft under the Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015: Lessons from Europe,’ 381–408 in FE Eboibi (ed), (n 35).

68 Ibid.

69 Missouri Attorney General Eric Schmitt, (n 44).

70 NCSC, (n 40).

71 WHO, ‘Cyber Security – Beware of criminals pretending to be WHO,’ available at <https://www.who.int/about/communications/cyber-security> last accessed 12 April 2020.

72 NCSC, (n 42).

73 US v John Doe, (n 47); DOJ, Justice Department Files Its First Enforcement Action Against COVID-19 Fraud, (n 44).

74 Ibid.

75 Ibid.

76 Ibid.

77 Mary Ugbodaga, ‘ALERT: Zenith Bank warns against fraudsters, says ‘we’re not disbursing COVID-19 funds,’ 16 April 2020, available at <https://www.thecable.ng/alert-zenith-bank-warns-against-fraudsters-says-were-not-disbursing-covid-19-funds> accessed 29 August 2020.

78 NCSC and CISA, (n 28).

79 Ibid.

80 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention etc) Act 2015, s.58.

81 NCSC, (n 42).

82 Success Nwogu, ‘FG alerts Nigerians to dangerous computer coronavirus,’ (Punch Newspaper, 22 March 2020), available at <https://punchng.com/fg-alerts-nigerians-to-dangerous-computer-coronavirus/> last accessed 28 March 2020.

83 NCSC, (n 42).; Sherrod Degrippo, ‘Coronavirus-themed Attacks Target Global Shipping Concerns.’ 10 February 2020, <https://www.proofpoint.com/us/threat-insight/post/coronavirus-themed-attacks-target-global-shipping-concerns> last accessed 12 April 2020.

84 NCA, Pharmacist and surveyor arrested over coronavirus testing kits, (n 30).

85 Success Nwogu, (n 82).

86 Ibid.

87 Email sent to Trish Sunnet<[email protected]>.

88 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention etc) Act 2015, s.58.

89 18 U.S.C. § 1341 (2006 & Supp. 2007).

90 18 U.S.C. § 1343 (2006 & Supp. 2007).

91 Amy Zelcer, ‘Mail and Wire Fraud,’ (2012) 49 American Criminal Law Review, 985–1009 @ 990.

92 United States v. Owens, 301 F.3d 521, 528 (7th Cir. 2002); see also United States v. McGeehan, 584 F.3d 560 (3d Cir. 2009) in Amy Zelcer, ‘Mail and Wire Fraud,’ (2012) 49 American Criminal Law Review 985–1009 @ 991–992, emphasis is mine.

93 United States v. New S. Farm, 241 U.S. 64, 71 (1916); In re Seizure of All Funds in Accounts, 68 F.3d 577, 581 (2d Cit. 1995) in Ibid.

94 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343 (2006 & Supp. 2007). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-204, § 903(a)-(b), 116 Stat. 745, 800 (2002) (codified as amended at 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343 (2006 & Supp. 2007))

95 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343 (2006 & Supp. 2007).

96 18 U.S.C. § 2326(1) (2006).

97 US v John Doe, (n 47); DOJ, Justice Department Files Its First Enforcement Action Against COVID-19 Fraud, (n 44).

98 Ibid.

99 UK Fraud Act 2006, s.1, available at <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/35/section/1> last accessed 9 May 2020; John H Farrar, ‘Fighting Identity Crime,’ (2011) 23 (1) Bond Law Review 94.

100 Ibid., s.1(2).

101 Ibid., s.2(1)a&b, available at <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/35/section/2> last accessed 9 May 2020.

102 Ibid., s.2(2)a&b.

103 Ibid., s.1(3) a&b. – By virtue of section 1(4), (‘Subsection (3)(a) applies in relation to Northern Ireland as if the reference to 12 months were a reference to 6 months.’)

104 NCA, ‘Pharmacist and surveyor arrested over coronavirus testing kits,’ (n 30).

105 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention etc) Act 2015, s.14(2).

106 See generally M Chawki1 & MS Abdel Wahab, ‘Identity Theft In Cyberspace: Issues And Solutions,’ 11 (1) Lex Electronica 1–41, available at <https://www.lex-electronica.org/files/sites/103/11-1_chawki-abdel-wahab.pdf> last accessed 10 May 2020.

107 Vida M Vilic, ‘Phishing and Pharming as Forms of Identity Theft and Identity Abuse,’ (2019) 13 Balkan Social Science Review 49.

108 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention etc) Act 2015, s.22(2).

109 247-15 U.S.C. § 7704(b)(3); Charlotte Decker, ‘Cyber Crime 2.0: An Argument to Update the United States Criminal Code to Reflect the Changing Nature of Cyber Crime,’ (2008) 81 Southern California Law Review 993–994.

110 Ibid., § 7704(a)(1)(C).

111 249-Ibid., § 7704(a)(2).

112 250-Ibid. § 7704(a)(1).

113 251-Ibid., § 7702(2)(A). ‘The term “electronic mail message” means, “a message sent to a unique electronic mail address”.’ 252-Ibid., § 7702(6).

114 Charlotte Decker, (n 109).

115 16 C.F.R. § 310.3(a)(4).

116 16 C.F.R. § 310.3(a)(2)(vii).

117 16 C.F.R. § 310.4(a)(8).

118 16 C.F.R. § 310.4(b)(v).

119 16 C.F.R. § 310.4(b)(iii)(B); see generally FTC, ‘FTC Coronavirus Warning Letters to Companies,’ available at <https://www.ftc.gov/coronavirus/enforcement/warning-letters> last accessed 23 April 2020.

120 Ibid.; 16 C.F.R. § 1.98(d); 15 U.S.C. §§ 6102(c), 57a(d)(3), 45(a); 15 U.S.C. § 53(b); 15 U.S.C. § 57b(b).

121 Ibid., 15 U.S.C. § 41 et seq.

122 21 U.S.C. § 355(a, 21 U.S.C. § 352, sections 301(a) and (d) of the FD&C Act, 21 U.S.C. § 331(a) and (d).

123 President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, ‘The Presidential Task Force on COVID-19 – Objectives,’ available at<http://statehouse.gov.ng/covid19/objectives/> last accessed 10 May 2020.

124 FE Eboibi, ‘A Review of the Legal and Regulatory Frameworks of Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015,’ (2017) 33(5) Computer Law & Security Review 713–716.

125 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention Etc) Act, 2015, s.58.

126 FE Eboibi et al., ‘Chapter 4 – A Critical Examination of Cybercrime Investigation Agency Under The Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015,’ in Cybercrime:new Threats, New Responses, Proceedings of the XVth International Conference on Internet, Law & Politics, Universitat Oberta de Cataluna, Barcelona, 1–2 July 2020, 68.

127 Nigerian Cybercrimes Act, 2015, s.41(2)(b) & 47.

128 Ibid., s.41(1)(c).

129 Nigeria Computer Emergency Response Team (ngCERT), available at <https://www.cert.gov.ng/> last accessed 10 May 2020.

130 Nigeria Police Force, ‘Covid-19 Pandemic: Police Alert Nigerians On Emerging Crime Trends,’ Available at “http://www.npf.gov.ng/information/pressdetails.php?news_id=417” last accessed 10 may 2020.

131 EFCC, ‘COVID-19: Again, EFCC Cautions Nigerians against Fake Donations, Cures,’ 8 April 2020, <https://efccnigeria.org/efcc/news/5679-covid-19-again-efcc-cautions-nigerians-against-fake-donations-cures> last accessed 11 May 2020.

132 Ibid.

133 EFCC, ‘Covid 19: EFCC Raises the Alarm on Fake Lockdown Funds,’ 28 April 2020, available at <https://efccnigeria.org/efcc/news/5703-covid-19-efcc-raises-the-alarm-on-fake-lockdown-funds> last accessed 10 May 2020.

134 FE Eboibi, ‘Concerns of Cyber Criminality in South Africa, Ghana, Ethiopia and Nigeria: Rethinking Cybercrime Policy Implementation and Institutional Accountability,’ (2020) 46(1) Commonwealth Law Bulletin, 89–91; see also DC Onwubiko & FE Eboibi, ‘The Application of Forensics Examination in Crime-related Prosecution: The Need for Standardization and a Recognized Model in Nigeria,’ (2020) Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review (forthcoming).

135 Ibid.

136 FE Eboibi et al., ‘Chapter 4 – A Critical Examination of Cybercrime Investigation Agency Under The Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015,’ in Cybercrime:new Threats, New Responses, Proceedings of the XVth International Conference on Internet, Law & Politics, Universitat Oberta de Cataluna, Barcelona, 1–2 July 2020, 69.

137 KH Mohammed, et al. ‘Cybercrime and Digital Forensics: Bridging the gap in Legislation, Investigation and Prosecution of Cybercrime in Nigeria,’ (2019) 2(1) International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence & Cybercrime, 56, 63.

138 Ikenga K, E Oraegbunam, ‘The Nigeria Police and Problems of Cybercrime Investigation: Need for Adequate Training,’ 19–22, available at <https://www.academia.edu/26360705/The_Nigeria_Police_and_Problems_of_Cybercrime_Investigation_Need_for_Adequate_Training1?auto=download> [Accessed 16 April 2019].

139 United States of America v Emmanuel Oluwatosin Kazeem, Oluwatobi Reuben Dehinbo, Lateef Aina Animawun, Oluwaseunara Temitope Osanyinbi, and Oluwamuyiwa Abolad Olawoye and United States of America v Michael Oluwasegun Kazeem. United States District Court, District Court of Oregon, Medford Division, 1:15-CR-00172-AA, Indictment (Under Seal). Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/press-release/file/432966/download> accessed 25 July 2019); United States District Court, District Court of Oregon, Medford Division, 1:16-CR-00062-AA, Indictment (Under Seal). Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/file/825841/download> accessed 25 July 2019; United States of America v. Valentine Iro & 79 others – US District Court, Central District of California – CR No.190R00380 FMO Indictment 2019. Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-cdca/press-release/file/1197341/download> accessed 22 September 2019.

140 Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention etc) Act 2015, s.45; Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999(as amended), s.37; Federal Republic of Nigeria v. Dr Joseph Nwobike (SAN)Unreported, Suit No: LD/2516C/16. Judgment delivered by Hon. Justice R.I.B Adebiyi of the High Court of Lagos State, Ikeja Judicial Division, Holden at Ikeja on 30 April 2018; EFCC, ‘EFCC Arrests 15 Suspected Internet Fraudsters In Lagos’ 26 August 2020, available at <https://efccnigeria.org/efcc/news/5981-efcc-arrests-15-suspected-internet-fraudsters-in-lagos> accessed 31 August 2020; EFCC, ‘EFCC Arrests Nine Suspected Internet Fraudsters In Minna,’ 21 August 2020, available at <https://efccnigeria.org/efcc/news/5966-efcc-arrests-nine-suspected-internet-fraudsters-in-minna> accessed 31 August 2020.

141 W Dupar, ‘Revisiting the Impact of Scientific Investigation on Criminal Prosecution in Nigeria’ (2018) 21(1) The Nigerian Law Journal, 206.

142 Ibid., (emphasis added) at 209, 211- ‘That is to say that unless a matter is properly investigated, the culprit is properly identified and apprehended and all evidences that will be relied upon by the prosecution to place such a suspect at the scene of crime as the person who perpetrated the offence charged, the prosecution case will fail. Forensic investigation by use of scientific technology provided the needed help in ensuring that perpetrators of criminal activities are identified by providing un-conflicting evidence pointing to no other person but the perpetrator of a criminal act from the bid of evidence of left behind and analyzed at forensic laboratory…’).

143 DOJ, ‘Attorney General William P. Barr Urges American Public to Report COVID-19 Fraud,’ (n 41); Gibson Dunn, (n 22).

144 Ibid.

145 Ibid.

146 CPS, ‘Interim CPS Charging Protocol – Covid-19 crisis response,’ available at <https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/legal_guidance/Interim-CPS-Charging-Protocol-Covid-19-crisis-response.pdf> last accessed 11 May 2020.

147 NCA, ‘Beware of fraud,’ (n 37).

148 NCA, NCA warn that organised crime groups may try to exploit the coronavirus outbreak to target the UK’ (n 43).

149 NCA, Beware fraud, (n 37).

150 NCA, Pharmacist and surveyor arrested, (n 30).

151 Y Akinsuyi. ‘Confusion as the Police and DSS Parades Two Sets of Suspects,’ This Day Newspaper (Nigeria, October 14, 2015), 9; FE Eboibi et al., ‘Chapter 4 – A Critical Examination of Cybercrime Investigation Agency Under The Nigerian Cybercrimes Act 2015’ in Cybercrime: New Threats, new responses, Proceedings of the XVth International Conference on Internet, Law & Politics, Universitat Oberta de Cataluna, Barcelona, 1–2 July 2020, 76–77 citing ; K Olaniyan, Corruption and Human Rights Law in Africa. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2016, 23.

152 United States of America v. RAMON OLORUNWA ABBAS, aka ‘Ray Hushpuppi,’ aka ‘Hush,’ UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT for the Central District of California Case No.2:20-mj-02992, available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-cdca/press-release/file/1292066/download> accessed 4 July 2020; DOJ, ‘Nigerian National Brought to U.S. to Face Charges of Conspiring to Launder Hundreds of Millions of Dollars from Cybercrime Schemes’ 3 July 2020, available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-cdca/pr/nigerian-national-brought-us-face-charges-conspiring-launder-hundreds-millions-dollars> accessed 4 July 2020; United States of America v Emmanuel Oluwatosin Kazeem, Oluwatobi Reuben Dehinbo, Lateef Aina Animawun, Oluwaseunara Temitope Osanyinbi, and Oluwamuyiwa Abolad Olawoye and United States of America v Michael Oluwasegun Kazeem. United States District Court, District Court of Oregon, Medford Division, 1:15-CR-00172-AA, Indictment (Under Seal). Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/press-release/file/432966/download> accessed 25 July 2019); United States District Court, District Court of Oregon, Medford Division, 1:16-CR-00062-AA, Indictment (Under Seal). Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/file/825841/download> accessed 25 July 2019; United States of America v. Valentine Iro & 79 others –– US District Court, Central District of California – CR No.190R00380 FMO Indictment 2019. Available at <https://www.justice.gov/usao-cdca/press-release/file/1197341/download> accessed 22 September 2019.

153 FE Eboibi, ‘Concerns of Cyber Criminality in South Africa, Ghana, Ethiopia and Nigeria: Rethinking Cybercrime Policy Implementation and Institutional Accountability,’ (2020) 46(1) Commonwealth Law Bulletin, 101–108.

154 FTC, ‘FTC Coronavirus Warning Letters to Companies,’ (n 59).

155 US v Genesis, (n52); DOJ, ‘Justice Department Seeks to End Illegal Online Sale of Industrial Bleach Marketed as “Miracle” Treatment for COVID-19,’ (n 52).

156 Ibid.

157 US v Rung Sun, (n 48); DOJ, Georgia Resident Arrested for Selling Illegal Products Claiming to Protect Against Viruses, (n 44).

158 US v John Doe, (n 47); DOJ, Justice Department Files Its First Enforcement Action Against COVID-19 Fraud, (n 44).

159 DOJ, Georgia Man Arrested for Attempting to Defraud the DVA, (n 38).

160 Nigerian Communications Act, 2003. s.146(1); FE Eboibi, ‘Curtailing Cybercrime in Nigeria: Applicable Laws and Derivable Sources,’ (2017) 2 African Journal of Criminal Law & Jurisprudence 26–27.

161 NCSC, (n.42).

162 NCA, Pharmacist and surveyor arrested over coronavirus testing kits, (n 30). > last accessed 24 April 2020.

163 NCA, ‘Criminals adapting to evade law enforcement in face of global pandemic,’ 16 April 2020, available at <https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/criminals-adapting-to-evade-law-enforcement-in-face-of-global-pandemic> last accessed 24 April 2020.

164 NCA, Coronavirus press conference – 25 April 2020: Director General Lynne Owen’s speech, available at <https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/coronavirus-press-conference-25-april-2020-director-general-lynne-owen-s-speech> last accessed 7 May 2020.

165 NCSC and CISA, (n 28).

166 Ibid.

167 Ibid., DOJ, Justice Department Files Its First Enforcement Action Against COVID-19 Fraud, (n 44); Missouri Attorney General Eric Schmitt, (n 42); NCSA, (n 24); NCA, Beware of fraud, (n 37).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Felix E. Eboibi

Dr. Felix E. Eboibi holds PhD, LL.M & LL.B degrees from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria and the University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria, respectively. He is a Senior Lecturer & Head, Research Department, Faculty of Law, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria, where he teaches Cybercrime Law.