Pets and Prams: Exploring Perceptions of Companion Animals in Relation to Maternal Wellbeing

ABSTRACT

Perinatal wellbeing is a critical area of mental health to address for the benefit of parents, infants, pets, and health services. Animals, and specifically pets, have been investigated as potential wellbeing supports in clinical and non-clinical populations, yet there has been limited exploration of their role in the perinatal period. To address this gap, this study aimed to examine the perceived risks and benefits of pet ownership on perinatal mental health through qualitative reports of lived experience from mothers with pets. An online survey with open-text questions was developed; thematic analysis was applied to data from 31 eligible UK participants. The analysis identified five themes: (1) promoting wellbeing and grounding in a time of change, (2) pets as preparation for parenting, (3) caregiver burden, (4) joy and challenges of pet–baby interactions, and (5) perceptions of changing pet behavior in the perinatal period. This study indicates that accessing emotional support from pets, second-hand joy from the pet–baby bond, and having “parenting practice” are perceived wellbeing benefits from pets. Further, parents expressed that increasing social support for pet and childcare, creating boundaries for pet–baby interactions, and managing perinatal expectations could help minimize risks identified by participants, including caregiver burden and pet-based distress and anxiety. These insights may allow practitioners supporting pet-owning new parents to begin exploring new ways for families to manage pets in the perinatal period in a way that enhances wellbeing for everyone involved, including pets.

KEYWORDS:

• Human–animal interaction
• infancy
• mental health
• perinatal wellbeing
• pets

Companion animals, hereby referred to as “pets,” can positively influence family relationships (Walsh, 2009) and can impact the mental and physical health of their owners/carers (Brooks et al., 2018; Hawkins et al., 2021; Hughes et al., 2020). Despite 77% of UK households with children owning a pet (UK Pet Food, 2022), family-oriented human–animal bond (HAB) research has predominantly focused on pets’ impact on child and adolescent mental health or wider family dynamics (Purewal et al., 2017; Scoresby et al., 2021), overlooking the relationship between a key group – new parents – and pets. The perinatal period, which spans pregnancy and a child’s first year of life (Gavin et al., 2005), is a known transitional time for a family, and new mothers (here used as shorthand for the birth-giving parent of any gender identity) have a heightened susceptibility to diagnosed mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and psychosis (Apter et al., 2011; Howard et al., 2014; Matsumura et al., 2022). Perinatal mental ill-health is a pressing public health concern: the World Health Organization estimates that one in five women experiences a mental health condition in this period (WHO, 2022), and giving birth increases a woman’s risk of psychiatric admission by 22 times (Howard & Khalifeh, 2020). Beyond acute conditions, up to 50% of new mothers face non-clinical symptoms (Howard et al., 2014) of reduced mental wellbeing, here defined as overall “positive emotional, psychological, and social health” (Thieme et al., 2015). As McDonald et al. (2021) postulate in their call for research, pets may have an outsize role to play in influencing both positive and negative aspects of wellbeing for new mothers at such a sensitive time.

Poor perinatal wellbeing can cause extreme distress for new mothers (e.g., Howard & Khalifeh, 2020; Knight et al., 2021), disrupt family function (Stein et al., 2014), and can lead to insecure infant–caregiver attachments that have life-long developmental consequences for the child (Howard & Khalifeh, 2020; Stein et al., 2014). At a societal level, the UK’s lifetime cost of untreated perinatal mental health conditions is estimated to be £8.1 billion per yearly birth cohort (Bauer et al., 2014). Investigations into biological, psychological, and social protective and risk factors related to perinatal wellbeing aim to create the best circumstances possible for new mothers and alleviate pressure on public services. Practitioners have strived to enhance known protective environmental factors such as parental access to social support (Harrison et al., 2022) and reduce contextual risk factors such as discrimination, poverty, insecure living situations, and intimate partner violence (see McDonald et al., 2021). Pets may be able to augment these measures by providing critical social support (e.g., Meehan et al., 2017), especially during times of stress and adversity; increasing coping and resilience; acting as a protective factor against adverse mental health outcomes (Applebaum et al., 2020, 2021; Hawkins et al., 2019; McDonald et al., 2022; Strand, 2004); and even improving perinatal hormones, such as by lowering cortisol and increasing dopamine (Beetz et al., 2012).

Conversely, pets may reduce wellbeing through additional caregiving burden, increased financial worries, possible changes in relationship dynamics and interactions, and more specifically for the perinatal period, through infant health and safety anxieties (Applebaum et al., 2020, 2021; Hawkins et al., 2023; Kuntz et al., 2023; McDonald et al., 2021). Likewise, having an overly close relationship with a pet may make an owner more psychologically vulnerable owing to pet loss or extreme guilt over not being able to meet pets’ needs (e.g., Hawkins et al., 2021). As McDonald et al. (2021) postulated by reviewing separate HAB and perinatal research, the new challenges of an infant and, for the birthing parent (“mother”), biological changes such as hormone fluctuations, could impact how new parents interact with the pet, as well as provide previously established benefits and unique perinatal assistances such as increasing parenting capabilities and confidence; this is yet to be empirically explored. Likewise, no research exists on how a pregnancy or arrival of a new baby may cause disruption to the welfare of pets through a potentially changing mother–pet dynamic. Identifying potential protective and risk factors for mental health as well as pet wellbeing in this period could help families and healthcare services work toward creating the most positive perinatal circumstances possible in relation to pets.

Existing research into this phenomenon is limited and unable to offer insight into the nuance of pets’ perceived importance in perinatal wellbeing. A quantitative study (Temesi et al., 2020) on Hungarian attitudes toward motherhood and pet ownership (including pet attachment) found pet-owning mothers reported parenting as more burdensome, particularly for those who had a positive attitude toward their pet. Likewise, pet-owning mothers who found motherhood burdensome were more likely to have depressive symptoms. The authors postulated a close pet relationship led to more worry about pet care, and with most mothers caring for pets without social support, this increased chances for caregiver burden and therefore depression (Temesi et al., 2020). Meanwhile, Mastsumura et al. (2022) study of a Japanese birth cohort showed that, when adjusting for demographic risk factors for postnatal depression, dog ownership reduced symptoms of depression and increased overall mental wellbeing; cat ownership increased the risk of depression, anxiety, and distress. However, the unadjusted models all pointed toward any pet ownership being an overall risk factor for a mental health condition, which the authors attributed to the influence of demographic confounders (e.g., relationship status, education) on pet-owning parents. This is in line with other research that shows pets can exacerbate existing stressors, as outlined above.

Additionally, Hou et al. (2018) cross-sectional study on prenatal lifestyles and anxiety found having pets correlated with reduced prenatal stress and anxiety, possibly due to pets’ emotional support. The conflicting nature of the results may be related to the differing cultural context, variable operationalization, and timepoints used in each study. However, all three studies point toward pets having a mixed impact on perinatal mental health and wellbeing. As correlational studies, existing research cannot offer insight into the lived experiences of pet-owning new mothers. These papers also broadly overlook the relationship the other way: changes to the wellbeing of the pets themselves and how they are cared for in this time.

Understanding when and how new mothers see pets as a risk or benefit specifically for their own wellbeing and how their interactions with their pet(s) change may offer insight that will guide the creation of support resources for new families with pets. This study therefore used qualitative methods to develop an initial understanding of the lived experience of pet ownership in the perinatal period, with a focus on maternal perceptions about how pets relate to wellbeing and changes in mother–pet relationships during this time. Dogs and cats were the focal animals for this study, as they are the most popular pets in Western families and are talked about more commonly in relation to mental health (Brooks et al., 2018; Hawkins et al., 2021). Specifically, this exploratory research aimed to create a basis of understanding regarding how new parents feel pets contribute to or reduce mental wellbeing, with the ultimate goal to encourage further research that can inform practitioners and to aid in the development of support resources for families navigating new baby–pet interactions.

Methods

Procedure and Online Survey

Participants were recruited via convenience and snowball sampling between May and June 2023. They were self-selecting volunteers as there was no compensation for their participation. An advertisement for the online questionnaire was placed on social media channels (Facebook, X (formerly known as Twitter), and Instagram) owing to a high volume of new mothers on these networks. The advert was also distributed to UK pregnancy/parenting organizations to increase chances of finding a nation-wide, engaged community that met the inclusion criteria in a cost-effective manner (Valerio et al., 2016). Inclusion criteria were participants who (1) had biologically been pregnant and/or given birth in the past three years, (2) owned a cat or dog in the perinatal period, (3) could answer in fluent English, (4) were at least 18 years of age, (5) answered at least one open-text question, and (6) lived in the UK, as this is where the researchers were based. Owing to the unique biological and physical experience (e.g., O’Hara & Wisner, 2014) of parents who are pregnant with and give birth to a child, participants must have physically experienced pregnancy and/or birth; the 3-year limit was used to ensure memories were recent (based on research on maternal recall regarding activities, health, and mental health in the perinatal period: e.g., Amissah et al., 2017; Li et al., 2005; McCormick & Brooks-Gunn, 1999; Takehara et al., 2014; Yawn et al., 1998). The final data set was comprised of answers from 31 eligible respondents, which met the criterion for qualitative data richness (10–50 respondents for participant-generated text response; Braun & Clarke, 2013) and allowed for “thematic saturation” (Fugard & Potts, 2015).

This study was approved by the Clinical and Health Psychology University Ethics Committee [approval reference: CAHSS2302/05]. Informed, electronic written consent was obtained from participants via an online information sheet and consent form prior to collecting data. Owing to the sensitive nature of the topic, mental health resources were included at the beginning (information sheet) and end (debrief form) of the survey, and participants were screened out prior to participation if they reported any negative experiences relating to the perinatal period (e.g., poor mental health, pregnancy/child loss) that meant possible distress could be caused by the research topic and questions. While demographic information was included, the names of children and pets were anonymized, and no identifying information was gathered. Participants could withdraw from the survey at any time and request their data be deleted within 7 days of participating. All data were held in accordance with UK data protection guidelines.

Survey questions began with multiple-choice demographic information, followed by open-text questions built around the perinatal context, relationship with pets, pets and wellbeing, and pet–baby relationship. These areas and questions were informed by the literature on perinatal stressors, HAB, and child–pet relationships, concepts identified by McDonald et al. (2021) call for research, and the question structure used by Hawkins et al. (2021). The full list of survey questions is provided in the online supplemental material. The average time to finish the survey was 122 min; removing outliers (n = 10), who took the longest, reduced the average time to 28 min. However, there is no accurate average survey completion time as some participants may have started the survey, taken a break, and finished it later, while others may have taken time to consider their answers.

Participants

Of 152 people who started the survey, the final sample comprised 31 participants who met the inclusion criteria. All but one participant identified as female; one participant identified as non-binary. The age of mothers during the perinatal period ranged from 25 to 41 years (M = 32.6 years). Respondents tended toward higher education and socioeconomic status: one participant made under £20,000 per annum, eight made up to £40,000, nine up to £60,000, five up to £80,000, and seven earned over £100,000, with one participant not specifying. Five participants had a minimum of a high school education, 12 had a bachelor’s degree, nine had postgraduate degrees, and four had a PhD or Doctorate, with one participant not specifying. Twenty families owned their home while nine rented, one lived with other family, and one did not specify. Two participants were in a relationship but not cohabiting, while 29 were either married, in a civil partnership, or cohabiting. Details of pet ownership, child demographics, and mental health can be found in Table 1.

Table 1. Details of participants (n = 31).

Child information at time of survey	Child count	One + pregnant	One	Two	Three
		2	18	10	1
	Child gender	Male	Female
		26	18
	Child age (years)	Minimum	Maximum*	Mean
		0	12	2.4
Demographics in perinatal period	Parent age (years)**	Minimum	Maximum	Mean		`
		25	41	32.6
	Mental health	Participants mentioning issue	Perinatal-specific issue	No mention of significant struggle	Depression (incl. postpartum)	Anxiety & Stress (incl. perinatal)	PTSD/trauma	Other
		15	6	16	8	11	2	2
	Pet ownership	Dog(s)	Cat(s)	Dog(s) & cat(s)	Other additional species
		17	8	4	3
	Total pets	Minimum	Maximum	Mean
		1	10	1.8

Note: *Parents with multiple children recorded the age and gender of all children, including those outside the study window of children aged 3 and under; all are included here.

**Perinatal age is either the age of the mother when the child was born, or if the mother was still pregnant when taking the survey, then age at pregnancy.

Data Analysis

An inductive, data-driven thematic analysis (TA) was applied, and a collaborative approach was taken whereby all researchers participated in the analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Braun & Clarke, 2021). The researchers used a flexible, reflexive, and active approach to develop codes and themes from the open-text answers of the dataset rather than imposing a theoretical paradigm to results (Braun & Clarke, 2021). Following the guidance of Braun and Clark (2006), researchers first familiarized themselves with the dataset by reading and re-reading responses. Second, researchers read line-by-line to generate initial codes for each response. Third, the researchers identified patterns in the codes, consolidated them into consistent higher-level codes, and selected illuminating quotes for each higher-level code. Fourth, researchers brought consolidated codes and quotes for discussion to agree overarching themes. Fifth, these themes were reviewed a second time by the research team to triangulate amongst themselves and to be distilled and renamed. Sixth, the research team ensured all chosen quotes aligned with the chosen themes and further refined theme definition.

From an initial set of 234 codes, five overarching themes were identified and agreed between researchers. Researchers were mindful of their experiences in mental health research and practice and the potential wellbeing impact of the research on themselves and their relationships with their pets; they kept a reflective log throughout to note prior assumptions and potential biases (Shenton, 2004). A total of 20,805 words (Range = 75–1,598, M = 671, Mdn = 706) were analyzed for this study.

Results

The analysis identified five prominent themes: (1) promoting wellbeing and grounding in a time of change, (2) pets as preparation for parenting, (3) caregiver burden, (4) joy and challenges of pet–baby interactions, and (5) perceptions of changing pet behavior in the perinatal period.

Theme 1: Promoting Wellbeing and Grounding in a Time of Change

This first theme captures participants’ views that pets were an important source of support and helped ground them during the rapid lifestyle changes of the perinatal period. Mothers reported that pets provided non-judgmental emotional support and light-heartedness were a positive distraction from worry and anxiety, and that they helped with emotion regulation during difficult moments. Mothers detailed that they felt these positive attributes helped to reduce stress, improve mood, improve sleep, and increase overall emotional wellbeing, especially from those reporting adverse mental health symptoms such as depression:

[My cat] would focus me on something other than the struggle I was having … I’m sure she was the only reason I got any sleep some nights. [P28]

Definitely positive … all the cuddles, strokes and being someone to chat to made a huge difference. I definitely think this contributed to the short lived and minor nature of the depression I experienced this time as opposed to the years of treatment resistant depression that I experienced after my first child. [P31]

Mothers also reported that pets provided a sense of purpose and motivation and “a reason to live” when struggling with their mental health or the difficulties of parenting; pets were also reported to help with mitigating harmful thoughts:

My dog has also helped me to overcome self-destructive thoughts both before and after my baby. [P19]

I was extremely down and depressed, but he gave me reason to get up out of bed in the morning. I did feel angry at first. That I was on maternity leave with a pet, but he truly saved me. He helped me get up and out of the house and kept my purpose. [P15]

For dog-owning new mothers in particular, the ability to take the dog for a walk was especially important for a sense of emotional and physical wellbeing. Dog walking was also important for staying active during pregnancy. Dog-owning mothers reported that this ability to get outside also facilitated social interactions with others, which they felt in turn prevented isolation. These mothers capture a sentiment expressed by multiple participants, saying:

Needing to walk the dog got me out of bed on even the darkest days … Walking her ensured I got fresh air and exercise, both vital to my wellness. [P31]

She definitely had a positive effect as she usually lifts my mood and has introduced us to so many people while walking her. [P1]

Theme 2: Pets as Preparation for Parenting

This theme encapsulates beliefs surrounding experiences of caring for a pet being a “first foray into parenting,” helping them to feel more prepared and confident in their ability to care for a new baby. They said this “practice” in turn made them feel less anxious or overwhelmed at the prospect of baby care, as one mother explains:

Having a pet definitely played a positive role in preparing me for my perinatal experience because he made me relax and I would think taking care of a baby is not so different from taking care of a dog. [P18]

The key areas of “practice” mentioned were understanding the emotional demands of caring for a dependent who was fully reliant on the caregiver, managing developmental milestones and related behaviors (e.g., lack of sleep, toilet training), working on patience and perseverance, being able to identify non-verbal cues, establishing routines and creating boundaries, and working on parenting roles (including identifying strengths and weaknesses) with a partner:

Having a fur child has helped develop a baseline of how to care for another being … [my partner, dog, and I] had our routines which were reassuring and that carried over into the baby’s first year. [P14]

I think it’s made me more able to understand baby squeaks and body language, and toddlerese … as cats can’t talk, I had to learn their ways/body language and I think that helped me with understanding babies. [P10]

As part of this, parents who said they actively prepared for the arrival of the baby alongside a pet expressed less anxiety around pet behavior or baby interactions than those who said they did not put a specific plan in place before the arrival of their new baby. Key structures that enabled this preparation were providing separate spaces for pets and babies (e.g., by using a baby gate), allowing the pet to meet baby on its terms, maintaining a routine, and envisioning the pet as a member of the family. By planning for the baby’s arrival with the pet in mind or asking for help to do so, participants felt calmer about the process:

I made sure [the cats] were considered as they were part of the family before my daughters arrived. It was very important to me that they get minimal impact. [P28]

I think offering to walk the dog is one of the best things you can do for new parents because they likely won’t be able to get out as much for the first couple of weeks while settling into new routines and recovering from the birth. Having someone else walk the dog to ensure she got a proper run out each day definitely made me feel less guilty! [P3]

Some participants also mentioned how their relationships with their pets made them a “better parent” or offered a “baseline” for parenting. For example, by embedding skills or highlighting their ability:

Definitely a positive one as she and my previous pets taught me to consider things more from her perspective and also reminded me that silence doesn’t mean consent. [P1]

I feel it has played a positive role because if you can care for and meet ALL needs of an animal then you should be OK to raise a child. [P5]

I think raising a puppy made me a better parent and more prepared to raise a baby. [P19]

These perceived benefits were reported for both cats and dogs.

Theme 3: Caregiver Burden

This theme covers participants reporting feeling more overwhelmed and stressed from having additional pet-care responsibilities alongside caring for a new baby or infant:

… Stress re additional creature in the house with demands on my time/meowing in addition to children crying. Sounds silly but I find [that] frustrating! [P29]

Most respondents mentioned at least some difficulty balancing the needs of pets and the changes from pregnancy, birth, and parenting an infant, particularly around pet care such as dog walking. Some participants, but not all, reported negative feelings surrounding being unable to spend as much time with their pets as they used to and being unable to meet their wants, needs, or expectations (e.g., attention, play). Often, the welfare needs of the pet did suffer, which led to low mood and feelings of guilt, stress, and frustration in respondents that exacerbated mental health symptoms:

I did feel stressed when I couldn’t spend as much time with [dog] in the house as I used to, and I felt guilty and low. [P11]

We used to sit together for hours and that’s just not possible with a baby, so she misses out on one of her favourite things which I think is really sad. [P2]

After baby arrived I couldn’t walk the dog any more due to not being able to walk him as well as push the pram and I was getting very stressed with how hyperactive he was becoming due to lack of exercise … I occasionally forget to make sure the cats have food and water (only for a few hours, not days at a time) which makes me feel bad. [P4]

There were additional reported stressors specific to the period of pregnancy, including difficulties with dog walking due to physical discomfort, as well as difficulties with feeding and cleaning (e.g., not cleaning litter boxes or bending down to clear up after a dog) and feeling unable to do general pet care due to feeling unwell during pregnancy:

I couldn’t bare the smell of his food so couldn’t help feed him when pregnant. [P4]

I played with him a lot … but over time it became harder as I was more and more pregnant. [P14]

Often in these cases, a partner would take over the pet responsibilities; social support or lack thereof was identified by participants as critical for pet care, particularly when juggling logistics such as vet visits. While many mothers relied on partners or friends to look after pets when they felt unable to, parents said that when they had a lack of support, they ended up discussing rehoming pets, or actual pet relinquishment. For example, one participant described the devastating impact that giving up their pets had on their wellbeing:

We had to let my dad take our dog indefinitely and rehome one of the cats … Having to give our dog to my dad when our baby was 5 months old was one of the most difficult decisions I’ve ever had to make and still absolutely breaks my heart over a year later. [P4]

Additionally, mothers expressed that feelings of caregiver burden were heavily influenced by availability of social support and environmental security. Mothers who felt unstable in their ability to provide due to housing, health, financial, or relationship insecurity, or felt they did not have adequate support caring for their pet, baby, and environment, used negative words about their wellbeing, such as “struggle,” “out of my depth,” “fright,” “alone,” “isolated,” and “resentment.” Those mothers with more support or more stability around caring responsibilities either notably used fewer/no negative words or used positive words about their caregiving responsibilities.

Theme 4: Joys and Challenges of Pet–Baby Interactions

This theme encompasses both the positive and negative aspects of observing babies and pets interact. The reported positive aspects of baby–pet interactions included the emotional benefit mothers felt from witnessing the pet and baby bond, as well as the emotional support baby received from this bond. Parents who identified a good relationship also expressed less anxiety over safety issues between the baby and pet, even if they had these worries pre-birth. Common elements of the pet–baby relationship that parents enjoyed were watching play, co-sleeping, and the baby feeding the pet. Mothers also reported that the baby and pet both seemed to benefit from their relationship. For example, the family pet’s name was their child’s first word, that baby and pet “love each other,” and some reported their pet and baby being “best friends.” Additionally, mothers discussed a positive three-way dynamic between mothers, baby, and pet:

I have noticed that if I am in another room and baby starts crying [Dog] will come and find me as if to ask, “are you going to do something?!” [P31]

My daughter’s first word was the cat’s name … My daughter loves to feed the cat her breakfast … and sometimes she has managed to feed the cat from her highchair. The cat is very keen on developing this game further. [P2]

My son and the dogs have a good relationship. He loved to watch them play and [the dog] and my son have a little private bond when it comes to mealtimes. [P5]

They are best friends. They genuinely love each other. One of her first words was dog. They are both gentle to each other. He once stole a toy from her as a baby and made her cry and he never did it again. [P13]

Despite many positive accounts of baby–pet interactions, some interactions were described as neutral, with baby or pet being “disinterested,” “keeping their distance,” or “tolerant” of each other. For a few participants, babies or pets were reported to be “wary” or “scared” of each other. Multiple participants expressed concerns of their own or from their social network about negative baby–pet interactions, including their pet potentially causing hurt to the baby either directly (e.g., lashing out or suffocating the baby) or indirectly (e.g., bringing in germs). Though few mothers said they had actual hygiene, allergy, or baby-directed behavioral issues with the pet, pre-emptive anxiety negatively impacted mental health:

I was worried about things like the [Dog] bringing any illness into the house … I kept him away from baby … I was anxious about trying to keep the house clean. [P15]

Some participants also reported negative reactions from their pet toward the child and minor pet–child harm such as scratches, often due to the child being too rough in their interactions (e.g., tail-pulling). Moreover, some interactions included the child accidentally causing fear in or hurt to a pet, but pets were reported to have been “tolerant” with the child. Both types of negative interactions appeared to be isolated incidents rather than consistent patterns with the pet:

[Cat] has scratched her face while petting too hard and unfortunately while supervised we just weren’t quick enough luckily it was his warning slap so it’s a small mark, but it did make us review our approach and since then we’ve had no further incidents. [P14]

We have had a couple of incidents where they play too rough or annoy the dog and she has barked/growled at them to warn them to leave her alone. [P30]

He [Dog] really loves her but is a little cautious as she’s four times his size and often knocks him down just by walking by him. [P1]

Theme 5: Perceptions of Changing Pet Behavior in the Perinatal Period

This theme captures the interactions and realities of owning a pet in the perinatal period, including pet behavioral change, which caused both positive emotion and distress in parents. Positive changes were increased proximity, following behavior, a sense of protectiveness, and affection seeking, such as laying their head on a mother’s baby bump:

I think the dog sensed something was different when I got pregnant. She followed me around the house more and wanted to be closer. Whenever I was being sick in the bathroom she was really concerned and would try and give me her toys (her way of showing love!). She does the same now baby is born … These changes make me so happy. [P3]

Dog became more protective. Female cat began wanting to lay on my bump all the time. Both of these were positive and made me feel happy. [P4]

When I became pregnant the cat became more cuddly toward me and would cuddle into my bump and purr in the mornings, I loved this, and it was so nice to feel his love. After my child was born this didn’t happen as much and he kept his distance a bit more going back to sleeping at my feet more. This makes me feel sad but at least I know he still cares as he uses my feet as a pillow. [P14]

Although many participants reported positive behavioral changes from their pet, some owners reported that their pets became “clingier” during pregnancy in a way that mothers did not enjoy, or they reported unwanted changes once baby had arrived, such as avoidance, and being more demanding, territorial, destructive or protective of toys:

Initially it had a very negative impact on my mental health when I first came home with baby. I was so upset that he [Cat] was avoiding me and not wanting to sit with me that it made my depression worse! [P11]

My dog hid from the babies when I first brought them home but quickly became interested and now loves them. I felt guilty I had upset the dog. [P30]

The males [Dogs] became nervous and barked a lot. I’d also probably say they would fight more and be more destructive and possessive of toys. [P26]

Directly observed behaviors that new parents said caused stress were the increased “mess” around the home and noise (e.g., barking, meowing, toy squeaking) that disturbed the baby and increased reactivity, the latter of which was more common in dogs. Not only did loudness cause stress for parents, but it also interrupted the baby’s sleep, which compounded frustration. Some mothers reported an increased sense of loneliness since having their baby, which they said was worsened by having a dog who was unable to interact with others (e.g., due to reactivity). Overall, parents described that these behaviors caused negative emotions such as increased physical anxiety, anger, frustration, and feeling unable to cope:

Their barking would make me really feel angry, like out of proportion angry and my partner’s male dog does the same. It makes me that anxious that I actually start getting palpations. [P26]

I dislike the dog and have since being pregnant. I can’t cope with his mess, smell, don’t have time for walks and he pulls a lot so I can’t take him and the children out together. The house feels dirty. [P9]

[Cat] woke baby by meowing which was very frustrating. Same problem with second baby. Cat now limits to small area of house for fear of waking baby. [P29]

Discussion

Wellbeing in the perinatal period is a complicated phenomenon, impacted not only by psychological and biological changes in the mother but also environmental factors that shape how a mother feels about and interacts with a baby. This study explored mothers’ lived experience of pet ownership in the perinatal period, including how mothers felt pets provided benefits and risks to their wellbeing and their changing relationship with pets. Thematic analysis demonstrated that parents felt pets could offer unique stability and emotional support, confidence-enhancing caring practice, and joy through a pet’s bond with and protection over the baby. However, some reported that pets could also increase caregiver burden and bring distress through their behavior, both toward the parent and the baby. Many parents also reported that they were less able to care for their pets in the perinatal period, which is a challenge to pet welfare. These findings have some practical implications.

Most risks, benefits, and environmental considerations parents reported in relation to pets and their mental health align with findings from previous studies on pets and mental health outside the perinatal period. For example, as reported by Barcelos et al. (2020, 2023a), Hawkins et al. (2021), and McDonald et al. (2022), pets can enhance wellbeing through increasing physical activity, non-judgmental emotional support, and providing a sense of fulfilment and identity. However, pets can be detrimental by causing stress around unwanted behavior or worries regarding not being able to meet pet-care needs. Likewise, influences on the pet–owner bond, including environmental stresses (e.g., housing, finance, relationship, and employment instability; McDonald et al., 2022) and owner mental health difficulties (Hawkins et al., 2021), were also mentioned by participants in relation to the perinatal period. However, as a baby gives new mothers an entity to worry about outside themselves (e.g., Biehle & Mickelson, 2011), some of these impacts, particularly anxieties, appeared to feel particularly acute for pet-owning mothers. Participants explained that their worry over pet behavior extended to potential harm to the baby, while wider environmental instability seemed to weigh upon perinatal mothers. However, mothers reported that the non-judgmental emotional support that pets provided was especially valuable in such an isolating time known for “mum-shaming” and loneliness (Hubert & Aujoulat, 2018; Williamson et al., 2023). Noting and further investigating how these elements may impact new parents over and above non-parenting pet owners could be useful for shaping pet-related wellbeing guidance specific to the perinatal period.

While many studies point to dogs being the most beneficial pet for wellbeing (see Hawkins et al., 2021; Matsumura et al., 2022), participants in our study did not report any notable difference in wellbeing by type of pet beyond the additional benefit of dog walking. While in some instances difficulties around pet care were animal-specific, such as cleaning out cat litterboxes due to germs or dogs requiring more exercise and care, the overall volume of reported difficulties did not seem to be overwhelming weighted to one species over another. This may be due to the individual natures of each pet. Likewise, while a few participants mentioned that dogs in particular helped them to socialize more (e.g., with other dog owners), this finding did not receive the same attention as it has in similar studies that did not focus on the perinatal period (Barcelos et al., 2023b; Hawkins et al., 2021). This may be because some participants had perinatal periods during COVID-19 lockdowns or they had overall less time to socialize due to the infant, or they socialized with the infant in similar ways to the pet (e.g., walks, groups), which made pet socializing opportunities less noteworthy.

While our study reported many of the factors predicted by McDonald et al. (2021), including preparing new mothers for parenting and exacerbating caregiver burden, it additionally exposed several perceived pet-related factors of wellbeing unique to the perinatal period. This paper could not, due to the qualitative design of the study, point to correlations between pets, types of pets, and specific stresses/disorders such as those set out by Matsumura et al. (2022), Hou et al. (2018), and Temesi et al. (2020). Additionally, while this study did highlight reports of pets providing mental health benefits within the perinatal period, as mentioned by Matsumura et al. (2022) in particular, as the data are in the context of individuals’ self-reported lived experience, the nature of a pet’s role is not clear-cut and may be circumstance-dependent (e.g., whether social support is available for pet care). More research is needed to create population data comparable with these previous studies.

Our study also highlighted that in some situations pets can exacerbate mental health difficulties, with the same caveat. The often-expressed guilt of being less able to care for a pet and the increased caregiver burden found in our study also aligns with Temesi et al. (2020)’s postulation that mothers who are attached to their pets are more likely to have negative feelings over their care, though not in specific relation to depression. The current study also found that mothers reported positive and negative experiences related to pets and mental health even within the same household and regarding the same pet, a nuance that requires further exploration overall, as well as attention in future quantitative studies that may not necessarily include such detail.

This paper captured several perinatal-specific themes of mothers’ perceived pet impact on mental health that had not been touched upon in previous studies. As a unique benefit, respondents indicated that pets offered a kind of parenting practice, something that directly increased their confidence in caring for their infant. As mothers with stronger beliefs in their caring efficacy have less stress (Raikes & Thompson, 2005), lower rates of depression and anxiety (Kohlhoff & Barnett, 2013), and more secure attachment (Gartstein & Iverson, 2014), the potential benefits of this mentioned “practice” warrants further research into its impact on distress and attachment in the context of human–animal relationships. Also not covered in previous literature is the joy mothers reported from seeing their pet and baby interact. While pets have been shown to be an important source of secure and loving attachment for children (see Hawkins & Williams, 2017; Jalongo, 2015; Wanser et al., 2019) and caregivers (e.g., Applebaum & Zsembik, 2020), mothers’ feelings regarding pet–baby interactions hints at an as-yet-unexplored attachment dynamic between pets, infants, and mothers that could impact maternal wellbeing.

A perinatal-specific perceived risk reported in our study was the worry that pets could harm the infant, either indirectly through germs or directly through unsafe and harmful pet–child interactions; parents also worried a baby may accidentally hurt a pet by not being gentle. Pet-based germ fears should be considered as a potential factor for stress and anxiety in pet-owning new parents; therefore, support around pet health and hygiene could be beneficial for expecting parents. Likewise, guidance on how to help children more safely and respectfully interact with pets could help parents feel more secure for the welfare of both animal and baby. As previously covered, pet-owning mothers felt distressed over feeling unable to provide quality care for their pets after having their baby, as well as feeling burnt out by competing care needs. This type of caregiver burden appeared to be unique to the attention-intensive perinatal period, as mothers specifically mentioned struggles balancing an infant and pet’s needs. The caregiver burden mentioned here should be flagged in reflections on the amount and type of social support (e.g., help with pet care from a romantic partner or family member) needed for new parents with pets, as the double burden provoked its anxieties and, in some cases, even pet rehoming. When such social support is not readily available, the welfare of the animal could suffer. Future studies should consider both maternal and pet wellbeing when examining human–animal interaction within the perinatal period.

Three common trends emerged from our study regarding how new parents maintained their wellbeing while managing pets. First, as part of “preparing for parenting,” many parents noted that pre-establishing routines and boundaries helped the pet–baby introduction process go more smoothly and reduced anxiety around their contact. Second, the availability of social support for mothers in managing both pet and infant care played an outsize role in how they felt about their pet during this time. While social support has been documented as a key factor in maternal wellbeing (see Harrison et al., 2022; Inekwe & Lee, 2022), HAB studies have broadly focused on how pets offer, not require, external social support for their owners (see Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010 for an exception). Mothers reported that how much perceived social support they had in relation to both baby and pet care influenced their attitude toward their pet, and even whether they considered rehoming the pet. The reported detail around social support or lack thereof was particularly notable in participants who had a difficult perinatal period (e.g., baby with sleeping issues, traumatic birth). This may offer a route for further research that could partially explain why Matsumura et al. (2022) found pets were a net detriment for maternal mental health in unadjusted models: social support could mediate the relationship between some or all of Matsumura’s confounding variables (e.g., intimate partner violence, age, marital status, etc.) and poorer perinatal mental health. However, as the participants in this study tended to be of higher socioeconomic status, were in romantic partnerships, and had more education – all protective factors that correlate with higher social support – it is not possible to determine how differences in these factors may have influenced the lived experience of mothers in this study.

For practitioners, understanding that some previously found risks and benefits related to wellbeing may be heightened in, and others unique to, the perinatal period can allow them to better support new parents with pet management. While this area requires further research, parents’ reports of what information or guidance was or would have been useful highlight areas for practitioners to consider. For example, suggesting ways to increase social support for new parents, specifically around pet care, may reduce caregiver burden, guilt, distress, and thoughts of rehoming. Participants reported a gesture as simple as having someone walk or temporarily look after a dog was helpful in this regard. Establishing expectations and boundaries around safe pet–baby interaction, such as teaching a baby to be gentle with a pet, managing germs, and what behavior changes may occur within the pet, may better prepare parents for bringing a baby home. Study participants reported that direct advice about these elements as part of their perinatal healthcare regimen would have been useful and would have helped to alleviate anxiety in this period. For parents who feel anxious about parenting, pointing to the practice they already have caring for a pet may increase confidence as participants described a clear connection between feeling able to care for a pet and caring for a child.

A key strength of this study was its contribution to addressing a gap in both HAB research and perinatal mental health by examining parents’ perceived risks and benefits of pets on wellbeing. The TA design (Braun & Clarke, 2021) allowed the study to capture the lived experiences and individual differences of pet ownership across the perinatal period. However, the study has several limitations. Its focus on cats and dogs, while in line with previous research, means the impact of other animals on perinatal mental health was not captured. Likewise, participants tended toward the higher end for socioeconomic and educational experiences, and most participants were cis-gender, heterosexual, white-identifying women from the UK: a population more likely to have access to perinatal wellbeing support (e.g., McDonald et al., 2021). Future research would be enhanced by increasing transferability and exploring differences by cultural and socioeconomic context, availability of mental healthcare, LGBTQ+ experiences, and the views of other caregivers (e.g., fathers, non-birthing mothers). Comparing community samples like this one and clinical samples may also help highlight the more acute risks and benefits of pets for those with mental health diagnoses.

Additionally, while the current study touched upon attachment, it was not the focus of this paper. A future analysis specifically examining attachment between pets, parents, and infants would be useful. Pets have been found to lead to more secure attachment styles and create developmental benefits for older children (e.g., Hawkins et al., 2022; Wanser et al., 2019). However, to the authors’ knowledge, there is not yet an understanding of how this relationship works in infancy, or indeed, how a pet may influence the attachment of a mother–infant dyad. Further research looking at these relationships may reveal ways pet relationships can influence infant attachment and in turn, family wellbeing.

Conclusion

Perinatal wellbeing is a critical area of mental health to address for the benefit of parents, infants, pets, and health services. New mothers reported that pets offered unique risks and benefits to wellbeing, and with a significant proportion of UK households with children owning cats and dogs, pets could be a potential resource or drain for many new and expecting caregivers. Creating a foundation to understand how and in what circumstances pets influence perinatal mental health opens new avenues to improving the wellbeing of both pets and parents in this period, as well as helping new parents to navigate changes in behavior, bonds, and interactions with the pet. This study indicates that pet-owning parents require additional help, particularly in three key areas that require further exploration: (1) increasing social support for pet and childcare, which could reduce caregiver burden and improve pet welfare; (2) support around creating routines and boundaries for safe pet–baby interaction, which may keep both pet and baby happy and healthy; and (3) educating parents about what to expect regarding pets in the perinatal period to minimize anxiety and even reduce the need for rehoming. Accessing emotional support from pets, second-hand joy from the pet–baby bond, and having “parenting” practice were all reported benefits from pets that may support wellbeing in new parents and even encourage further family bonding. This study also found indications that pets may play a unique role in early attachment, which requires further research. As an exploratory, qualitative study, it cannot provide clear answers on pets’ overall benefit or risk to perinatal mental health. However, this foundational knowledge of how parents perceive the role of pets perinatally can offer practitioners new ways to think about approaching support for new parents with pets and potentially incorporate them into wellbeing interventions for parents, pets, and babies.

Acknowledgements

We thank all the participants who took their time to share their perinatal experiences.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.