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Research Article

Social classes and political Islam: a comparative ecological approach of post-Arab Spring elections in Northern Africa (2011- 2014)

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Pages 1234-1254 | Published online: 06 Jul 2022
 

ABSTRACT

Starting from the debate on the sociology of political Islam, opposing interpretations centred on identity and on specific class alliances, the paper proposes a comparative analysis of the socio-geographies of mainstream Islamist parties in the post-Arab spring period in Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt. The paper shows that socio-geographies of political Islam are very pronounced, making unlikely an interpretation of Islamist parties as having a purely non class-based identity. These results challenge the conception of political Islam as a hegemonic ideology among Arab populations, as such an ideology would be built on their cultural heritage, repressed both by colonialism and by post-colonial elites. This conception denies the complexity of modern Arab societies, the importance of minorities, the diversity of social trajectories and the capacity of other movements to penetrate into some deprived rural or urban areas. This analysis neither validates conclusions that political Islam is an alliance between the deprived urban classes and the traditional bourgeoisie politically excluded from the ruling post-colonial classes. Rather, one finding is that the social grounds of Islamists are very dependent on the national contexts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2022.2079116

Notes

1 Seniguer H. (2021), L’islam politique: définition et enjeux d’un mouvement pluriel, https://www.areion24.news/2021/10/28/lislam-politique-definition-et-enjeux-dun-mouvement-pluriel/; see also Seniguer H. (2017), Les islamistes ont-ils évolué ? Retours critiques sur une idéologie résiliente, Confluences Maditerranée, 2017/1 N° 100, 159–175. Gana A. & Ait-Aoudïa M., (eds), Les partis islamistes ont-ils vraiment changé ?, Année du Maghreb, 22/20,021-1.

2 We do not subscribe to a definition of political Islam, which derives this political current from the reformist tradition within Islam and understands it as a form of governmentality associated with the construction of nation-states in countries with a Muslim majority, and which, based on this broad definition, distinguishes political Islam from Islamism (see Cesari J. (2021), « Political Islam: more than Islamism » Religions 12: 299.

3 Fuller G (2004), The Future of Political Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

4 Burgat F. (2004), Les courants islamistes contemporains: entre ‘ dénominateur commun identitaire ’ et internationalization de la résistance à un ordre mondialisé. Mouvements: des idées et des luttes, La Découverte, 2004, pp.77–87.

5 Burgat F. (2002), L’islamisme en face, Paris: La découverte.

6 Ayubi, Nazih N. (1991), Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab world / Nazih N. Ayubi.Routledge, London.

7 Kepel G., 2000, Jihad. Expansion et déclin de l’islamisme, Paris, Gallimard.

8 Seniguer H. (2012), « Les islamistes à l’épreuve du printemps arabe et des urnes: une perspective critique », L’Année du Maghreb, VIII, 6786.

9 Vannetzel M. (2017), « The Muslim Brotherhood’s ‘Virtuous society’ and State Developmentalism in Egypt: the Politics of ‘Goodness’ », International Development Policy | Revue Internationale de Politique de Développement, 8, 220–245.

10 Seniguer, op. cit.

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12 Fuller, op. cit.

13 Pellicer, Wegner, Op. cit.

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16 We regard as secular the parties whose political and governmental projects do not include religious norms as a source of law and regulation of social relations and for which the State should not have a religious character.

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22 Particularly through the writings of thinkers and intellectuals, such as Sheikh Thaalbi, Tahar Haddad in Tunisia, etc.

23 Haddad, op. cit.

24 Perez D. (2016), ‘Mythes fondateurs et fabrique du politique dans l’hémicycle: le débat identitaire à l’Assemblée nationale constituante tunisienne’, in Van Hamme, G., Gana, A. Elections et Territoires en Tunisie: Enseignements des scrutins post-révolution (2011–2014), Paris, Karthala.

25 Bernard-Maugiron N. (2011), « Egypte: Les enjeux constitutionnels », Afkar/Idées, Estudios de Politica Exterior/Instituto Europeo del Mediterraneo.

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27 Bernard-Maugiron, op. cit.

28 McCarthy R. (2014), ‘Re-thinking Secularism in Post-independence Tunisia’, The Journal of North African Studies, 19:5, 733–750.

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30 Boubekeur A. (2016), ‘Islamists, Secularists and Old Regime Elites in Tunisia: Bargained Competition’, Mediterranean Politics, 21:1, 107–127.

31 Wolf A. (2013), « An Islamist ‘Renaissance’? Religion and Politics in Post-revolutionary Tunisia”, The Journal of North African Studies, 18: 4, 560–573.

32 Perez, op. Cit.

33 Gana, A., Van Hamme, G. (2016). Elections et Territoires en Tunisie: Enseignements des scrutins post-révolution (2011–2014). Tunis-Paris: IRMC-Karthala.

34 Turner B. (2003), ‘Class, Generation and Islamism: Towards a Global Sociology of Political Islam’, British Journal of Sociology, 54 (1), 139–14

35 Kepel G. (1991), La revanche de Dieu. Chrétiens, juifs et musulmans à la reconquête du monde, Paris, Seuil, « l’épreuve des faits ».

36 Kepel (2000), op. cit.

37 Turner, op. cit.

38 Saad Eddine I. (1980), ‘Anatomy of Egypt’ Militant Islamic Groups: Methodological Note and Preliminary Findings’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 12, 423–453.

39 Ansari H.N (1984), ‘The Islamic Militants in Egyptian Politics,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies 1: 123–44.

40 Islamic Liberation (MA—Military Academy group), Repentance and Holy Flight (RHF), Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Mujahideen.

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42 Seda Demiralp (2012), ‘White Turks, Black Turks? Faultlines beyond Islamism versus secularism’, Third World Quarterly, 33:3, 511–524.

43 Gumuscu S. (2010), ‘Class, Status and Party: The Changing face of Political Islam in Turkey and Egypt’, Comparative Political Studies, 43 (7), 835–861.

44 Merone, op. cit.

45 Boubekeur, op. cit.

46 Merone, op. cit.

47 Aclimandos, T. (2010), « L’islam politique égyptien », Confluences Méditerranée, 75: 4, pp. 167–179.

48 Vannetzel M. (2007), « Ils nous ont déjà essayés ! Clientélisme et mobilization électorale frériste en Égypte », Politique africaine » 108: 4, 47–66.

49 Bayoumi H., Rougier B., (2015) « Sociologie électorale de la séquence 2011–2013 », in Rougier, Lacroix (eds),

L’Égypte en révolutions, Presses Universitaires de France, Proche-Orient, pp. 165–190.

50 Elsayyad, M., Hanafi S. (2014), Voting Islamist or Voting Secular? An Empirical Analysis of Voting Outcomes in Egypt’s ‘Arab Spring’, Public Choice, 160, 1–2, 109–130.

51 Goeury D. (2014), « Le pouvoir est-il enfin dans les mains des villes ? », EspacesTemps.net [En ligne], Travaux, 2014 | Mis en ligne le 12 mai 2014, consulté le 12.05.2014. URL: https://www.espacestemps.net/articles/le-pouvoir-est-il-enfin-dans-les-mains-des-villes/

52 Gana A., Van Hamme G. & Ben Rebah M. (2012), « Géographie électorale et disparités socio-territoriales: les enseignements des élections pour l’assemblée constituante en Tunisie », L’Espace Politique [En ligne], 18 | 2012–3, mis en ligne le 21 décembre 2012. URL: http://espacepolitique.revues.org/2486; DOI: 10.4000/espacepolitique.2486.

53 Demiralp, op. cit.

54 Goeury, op. cit.

55 Burgat (2002), op. cit.

56 If the principle of secularism is the separation of religious matters from the state, the forms of secularism vary according to the socio-historical processes that shape the political systems in place in the different countries. The literature distinguishes between moderate and authoritarian secularism. While the moderate secularism model allows for the expression of religious values in the public sphere, authoritarian secularism establishes state control over religion and limits its expression in the public sphere, as well as the political role of religious institutions (see Mahmood S. (2006), Secularism, hermeneutics, and empire: the politics of islamic reformation. Public Culture 18(2); Stephan A. (2011),The multiple secularisms of modern democratic and non-democratic regimes. In Rethinking secularism, ed. Craig Calhoun, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Jonathan Van Antwerpen, New York: Oxford University Press; Oztig, L.I. (2018) A governmentality approach on the transformative role of authoritarian secularism. Z Religion Ges Polit 2, 81–99 (2018).

57 Saad Eddine, op. cit.

58 Germain V. (2013), « Le printemps arabe au Maroc », Les clés du Moyen Orient, 08/07/2013.

59 Bennafla K., Seniguer H. (2011), « Le Maroc à l’épreuve du Printemps arabe: une contestation désamorcée ? » Outre-terre, 29: 143–158.

60 Gana A., Sigillo E., Blanc T. (2021), ‘Beyond Moderation: Strategic Pluralization in Tunisian Islamist Politics’, Middle East Law and Governance, (Forthcoming)).

61 Seniguer, op. cit.

62 Geisser V., Gobe E. (2008), « Un si long règne … Le régime de Ben Ali vingt ans après ». L’Année du Maghreb, CNRS Éditions, p. 347–375.

63 Allani A. (2009), ‘The Islamists in Tunisia Between Confrontation and Participation: 1980–2008’, The Journal of North African Studies, 14:2, 257–272.

64 Allal, A. & Vannetzel, M. (2017). « Des lendemains qui déchantent ? Pour une sociologie des moments de restauration », Politique africaine, 146, 5–28.

65 Gana, Sigillo, Blanc, op. cit.

66 Ayoobi, M. (2004), ‘Political Islam: Image and Reality’, World Policy Journal, Fall, 2004, 21, 3, pp. 1–14.

67 In Cairo, it was impossible to systematically map and analyse electoral and socio-demographic data at local level, because of the lack of data.

68 Bussi M. (1998), Eléments de géographie électorale. A travers l’exemple de la France de l’ouest, Publications de l’université de Rouen.

69 Rivière J., « L’espace électoral des grandes villes françaises. Votes et structures sociales intra-urbaines lors du scrutin présidentiel de 2017 », Revue française de science politique, 67:6, 1041–1065.

70 Braconnier C. (2010), Une autre sociologie du vote: les électeurs dans leurs contextes, Paris, Lextenso.

71 Van der Wusten H., Mamadouh V. (2014), « ‘It is the Context, Stupid!’. Or is It? British-American Contributions to Electoral Geography since the 1960s », L’Espace Politique [En ligne], 23 | 2014–2, mis en ligne le 02 juillet 2014, consulté le 23 décembre 2019.

72 Van Hamme, G. (2012), ‘Social Classes and Political Behaviours: Directions for a Geographical Analysis’, Geoforum, 43(4).

73 Van Hamme, G., David, Q. (2011). ‘Pillars and Electoral Behavior in Belgium: the Neighborhood Effect Revisited’. Political Geography, 30(5), 250–262.

74 Bussi, op. cit.

75 Van Hamme, G., Gana, A., Ben Rebbah, M. (2014), ‘Social and Socio-territorial Electoral Base of Political Parties in Post-revolutionary Tunisia’. Journal of North African Studies, 19(5), 751–769.

76 Van Hamme, G., Gana, A. (2016). “Ebauche de sociologie électorale des élections d’octobre 2011 ». In Gana, Van Hamme (Eds.), Elections et territoires en Tunisie. Tunis-Paris: IRMC-Karthala. pp. 87–115.

77 Saad Eddine, op. cit.

78 Aclimandos, op. cit.

79 Vannetzel 2007, op.cit.

80 Ansari, op. cit.

81 Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot (1984), ‘Religion or Opposition? Urban Protest Movements in Egypt,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16: 541–52.

82 Tilmatine M. & Desrues T. (eds), 2017, Les revendications amazighes dans la tourmente des « printemps arabes ». Trajectoires historiques et évolutions récentes des mouvements identitaires en Afrique du Nord, Centre Jacques Berque Editions, Rabat.

83 Gana et al 2014, op. cit.

84 Mokhefi M. (2015), « Tunisie: sécularisation, islam et islamisme », Histoire, Monde & Cultures religieuses, 34, juin 2015.

86 Merone, op. cit.

87 Carpentier I. (2016), « L’observatoire localisé de Gabes: les ressorts d’une victoire éclatante du parti Ennahdha », in Gana, Van Hamme. Elections et Territoires en Tunisie: Enseignements des scrutins post-révolution (2011–2014), pp.153–171.

88 Dialmy A. (2000), « L’islamisme marocain: entre révolution et intégration », Archives des sciences sociales des religions, 110, p. 5–27.

89 Zaki L. (dir) (2009), Terrains de Campagne au Maroc. Les Elections Législatives de 2007, IRMC-Karthala, Paris-Tunis, 2009, 332 pages.

90 Van Hamme G., Gana A., Ben Rebah M. (2016), « De 2011 à 2014: Refonte du paysage politique et continuités socio-territoriales », In Gana A. & Van Hamme G. (2016), Elections et Territoires en Tunisie. Les enseignements des scrutins post-révolution en Tunisie, Karthala-IMRC, Paris, Tunis.

Additional information

Funding

This research has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement n°695674).

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