Chinese students entrepreneurial career anchors, self-cultivation and the role of in-group collectivist values and gender: a conservation of resources perspective

ABSTRACT

Using Conservation of Resources theory (COR) as our conceptual framework we investigate the relationship between the entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA) and self-cultivation (SC) values of Chinese business students. We additionally examine the moderating role of in-group collectivist values (IGVs) and the interaction of IGVs and gender in this relationship. Based on survey data from 643 undergraduate students attending a university in northern coastal China we found a positive relationship between ECA and SC. We also found that IGVs, in combination with gender as a covariate, moderated this relationship. Our study contributes to the international HRD literature by emphasising prospective graduates as a source of entrepreneurship, and the salience of the ECA in promoting self-cultivation. This is accentuated through IGVs and gender. Our findings have significant implications for international HRD education and the development of prospective graduates.

KEYWORDS:

• COR theory
• entrepreneurial career anchor
• self-cultivation
• in-group collectivist values
• gender
• prospective graduates

Introduction

There is a growing interest within the IHRD literature on career development (Wechtler, Koveshnikov, and Dejoux 2017) and the role of career anchors in impacting development behaviours (Arnold, Coombs, and Gubler 2019; Lee and Wong 2004; Saif 2020). The entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA) is an important focus of IHRD research (Li, Ghosh, and Nachmias 2020) however to date we have limited insights on the types of development behaviours that it leads to and the role that national cultural context and gender potentially play. Globally, there is an increased emphasis on the development of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes (Cooke and Xiao 2021) with the World Economic Forum (2020) for example emphasising the value of entrepreneurship as a generic skill set and its demand by employers. In the context of employers there is an expectation that prospective graduates possess knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs), including self-management, active learning, resilience, stress tolerance, and flexibility (Garavan et al. 2021). As highlighted in both the boundaryless and protean career concepts (Hall 2002), prospective graduates are now expected to be more self-directed (Arnold, Coombs, and Gubler 2019), take responsibility for their own continuous development, and adapt to changing conditions (Chuang and Wang 2018). Within the post-COVID−19 global context increased prominence is given to personal development and self-management skills (Li, Ghosh, and Nachmias 2020).

This focus on self-development brings into view the role of self -cultivation (SC), which is based on traditional Chinese Confucianism (Duan et al. 2022) and emphasises self-development, transformation through high moral standards, and influencing others (Peters 2020). SC is one dimension of a wider set of Chinese work values (CWVs) that includes collectivism, thrift, respect for educational achievements, hard work, cooperation, endurance, respect for authority, and hierarchy (Lin, Yanping, and Hou 2015; Liu 2011). While SC has received attention within the wider Chinese work values literature (Chuang and Wang 2018; Peters 2020), it has received little attention in IHRD where there is a tendency to use Western concepts and theories (Duan et al. 2022) that are not always aligned with the Chinese context (Li and Madsen 2010; Tsui 2006). To advance the IHRD literature we focus on SC as a concept that is central to Chinese culture (Chuang and Wang 2018) and investigate the ECA as an important antecedent of this set of values and behaviours. We therefore respond to calls by Duan et al. (2022) to empirically investigate dimensions of Confucian values and associated behaviours (Kong and Zhang 2011). We propose that SC captures this increased focus on self-development and the development of KSAs considered important in an increasingly connected and global world (Chuang and Wang 2018; Garavan et al. 2021). These values we argue are central to HRD and IHRD (Duan et al. 2022; Hassan 2007) and can be supported using HRD interventions including education, training, and personal development processes (Wang 2012).

In addition to investigating the role of the ECA as an antecedent of SC, it follows that the manifestation of SC will be influenced by the wider cultural context. Given that China is classified as a predominantly collectivist society, we investigate the accentuating role of an important national cultural dimension- in-group collectivism (Blodgett et al. 2001). In-group collectivism consists of both values and practices, it is broadly defined as the extent to which individuals are interdependent and express pride and loyalty towards their organisations and families (House et al. 2004). In this study, we focus on in-group values (IGVs) which are defined as how society ‘should be’ such as the extent to which one takes pride in society.

In the context of entrepreneurship (Hofstede 2001) and career anchors (Haslett and Leidel 2015), gender also emerges as a key consideration. Given the pervasive role of gender in all societies, an intriguing and yet unanswered question concerns whether gender plays a role in accentuating or dampening the relationship between the ECA and SC (Cho, Li, and Chaudhuri 2020; Gudykunst and Kim 2003). There are calls in the Asian context to more strategically promote women entrepreneurs to achieve sustainable economic growth within Asia (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2018; Mastercard 2018). The McKinsey Global Institute (2018) report on women’s equality in Asia found that economic development could be greatly enhanced by advancing women’s participation in economic activities. Research to date highlights important gender differences in both career anchors and work values (Dyke and Murphy 2006; Hardin et al. 2006; Haslett and Leidel 2015; Kirchmeyer 2006). Research on values also highlights the moderating role of gender on the work values of males and females (Haslett and Leidel 2015).

In this paper we pose the following research questions: (1) What is the relationship between the ECA and SC as a component of Chinese work values? (2) What is the role of in-group collectivist values in the relationship between the ECA and SC and (3) How does gender interact with IGVs to impact this relationship? In investigating these questions, we anticipate that given the nature of the ECA with its emphasis on opportunity, growth, development, and entrepreneurial activity it will be an important antecedent of SC (Chen 2002; Chuang and Wang 2018). In addition, given that China is a highly collectivist culture we expect that IGVs will strengthen or elevate the ECA-SC relationship. We additionally envisage that gender will interact with IGVs to explain their role as moderators. In providing a theoretical foundation for these questions we draw on COR theory (Hobfoll 1988). To address these questions, we invoke the theoretical utility of COR theory (Hobfoll 1998).

This paper makes three important contributions to HRD literature. First, we shed light on the direct relationship between the ECA and the SC, and in doing we bring SC to the forefront of the IHRD literature. We theorise that the behaviours associated with the ECA are an important personal resource (Hobfoll 1988) that enables individuals to engage in SC activities. In addition, we conceptualise the ECA as a higher-order internal construct emphasising subjectivity about one’s career whereas we conceptualise SC as a second-order work value (Dawis and Lofquist 1984). This underpins our reasoning for selecting ECA as the independent variable and SC as the dependent variable. Second, we provide insights into the role of a national cultural dimension conceptualised as IGVs as a condition or contextual resource and its role as an important contingency that accentuates the ECA-SC relationship. Finally, we shed light on the role that gender plays in interacting with the ECA and IGVs to explain SC amongst prospective graduates in China.

In the following section, we outline the key principles of COR theory, which we have used to develop our hypotheses. We describe the methods involved and then present our findings. This is followed by a discussion of the findings and the limitations of our study. We conclude our paper with a discussion of the HRD research and practice implications arising from our study.

Theory and hypotheses

Conservation of resources theory

All our hypotheses are underpinned by the Conservation of Resources (COR) motivational theory. COR theory emphasises the notion of resources, defined as ‘objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by the individual’ (Hobfoll 1989, 516). It explains how individuals are ‘primarily’ motivated towards accumulating, conserving, and allocating highly valued work-related resources (Halbesleben et al. 2014; Hobfoll 1989). Resources are defined as ‘anything perceived by an individual to help attain his or her goals’, such as relationships with leaders (Halbesleben et al. 2014, 1338). COR theory proposes that resources are interrelated (Hobfoll and Schumm, 2009). They can be defined broadly within the following four categories: (i) objects, which are conceptualised as physical items, that fulfill basic needs and elevate an individual’s societal status which is not the focus of our study; (ii) conditions are states of being and valued as they confer status and provide access to other resources and in the context of our study are IGVs; (iii) personal resources conceptualised as personal traits, dispositions, skills and behaviours that enhance resilience and which in the context of our study focuses on the ECA (iv) energies which are conceptualised as finite resources that individuals utilise to acquire additional resources which in the context of this study is SC (Hobfoll 2001, 2011).

Central to our study is the COR theory resource investment principle (Hobfoll et al. 2018). This proposes that employees invest in resources to protect against resource loss, recover from losses, or acquire more resources (Hobfoll 2001). While studies primarily use the resource loss and resource loss cycle concepts of COR theory, we focus on resource investments, on securing and expending resources, with particular emphasis on using ‘energy resources’ to gain and acquire other resources. Resources enable individuals to meet work demands and achieve goals (Crawford, Lepine, and Rich 2010), they can also be used to offset the loss of other valuable resources (Kiazad et al. 2015). As individuals gain resources, they are in a better position to invest and gain additional resources (Hobfoll 1998, 2001), they are then likely to invest these resources and experience ‘resource gain spirals’ (Hobfoll et al. 2018). Our focus and our underpinning concepts envisage a resource gain scenario (Hobfoll et al. 2018).

The entrepreneurship career anchor and self-cultivation

The ECA is defined as creating ‘something new, involving the motivation to overcome obstacles, the willingness to run risks, and the desire for personal prominence in whatever is accomplished’ (Schein 1990, 30). The ECA is linked to a variety of behaviours that include adaptability, challenge, achievement, autonomy, and taking risks to obtain personal prominence (Matlay 2005; Schein 1990; Zhao and Seibert 2006). It is characterised by an individual’s need to build or create something that is entirely their project and associated with innovation, growth, and uniqueness, through the creation of value through new services and ventures (Culbertson, Smith, and Leiva 2011; Gartner 1990; Hisrich, Peters, and Shepherd 2005; Matlay 2005). Studies suggest that career anchors are positively associated with different behaviours (Wechtler, Koveshnikov, and Dejoux 2017) and that individuals with an ECA focus their careers on personal motivations relating to the need for change, personal freedom, challenge, developing their own projects and taking risks (Kuratko, Hornsby, and Naffziger 1997; Matlay 2005; Schein 1990). Given that the ECA represents an important personal resource, one that may drive prospective graduates to engage in SC behaviours, we propose that individuals with an ECA will be orientated and committed to SC.

We theorise that SC is an outcome of the ECA (Costigan, Gurbuz, and Sigri 2018; Schein 1990; Wechtler, Koveshnikov, and Dejoux 2017). SC as a dimension of CWVs gives primacy to personal development and transformation of self, supported by ritual habits and moral education (Chan 1969), this is accompanied by stages, rituals, and socio-psychological processes (Peters 2020). SC gives particular emphasis to self-consciousness, initiative, and selflessness as the basis for the development of self. This is achieved through self-learning, self-reflection, self-improvement, self-restraint and consciously improving the welfare of society (Duan et al. 2022). Consistent with COR theory (Hobfoll 2001), the ECA represents an important personal resource that drives the acquisition of SC, an energy resource that prioritises the cultivation of the self. We, therefore, propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1:

The entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA) is positively related to self-cultivation (SC).

Moderating role of in-group collectivism values

Given its pervasive use in the wider management literature (Dorfman et al. 2012) and its robustness as a cultural construct (Pathak and Muralidharan 2016), we utilise the GLOBE conceptualisation of in-group collectivism (House et al. 2004). GLOBE classify IGVs (House et al. 2004) as concerned with the extent to which one takes pride in society, focuses on personal ‘aspirations’, the collective, including loyalty, and cohesiveness within their organisations and families (Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al. 2004). We propose that IGVs are a condition or a contextual resource that helps in translating the ECA into SC. IGVs act as important accentuators or elevators in this relationship (Pathak and Muralidharan 2016) that translate the ECA into the self-cultivation behaviours of prospective graduates. IGVs in the context of COR theory provide a resource caravan effect, one that links a personal resource to an energy resource (Hobfoll et al. 2018). The utilisation of IGVs as a moderator is consistent with research by Haslett and Leidel (2015) who found that Chinese students espoused more collectivist values and emphasised social values such as relationships at work. In addition, Gao and Ting-Toomey (1998) found that Chinese students disliked having sole responsibility for a task and suggested that within a collectivist culture, task responsibilities are shared. Erez and Earley (1993) found that Chinese students performed less well in an individual or an out-group rather than an in-group context. To account for variations in Chinese work values across China we measured IGVs as an individual-level construct (Kulich and Zhang 2010; Song et al. 2019; Xu 2006). Research emphasises that collectivistic social orientation moderated the relationship between work stress and job performance (Siu 2003). In relation to the idea that in-group collectivism is potentially at odds with the ECA, we are guided by arguments proposed by Chen (2002) to the effect that individualist ECA is compatible with IGVs. It is, therefore, possible to have a strong ECA and live in a collectivist society such as China, where adversity and opportunity are linked, and collectivist values are balanced with entrepreneurship and crisis (Chen 2002). We therefore propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2:

In-Group collectivist values (IGVs) moderate the entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA) and self-cultivation (SC) relationship. The entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA) and self-cultivation (SC) relationship is stronger when In-Group collectivist values (IGVs) are high.

The role of gender

We now come to argue for the important role of gender and its interaction with IGVs and SC. We selected gender because of its salience in the entrepreneurial context in Asia and China in particular (Deng, Wang, and Alon 2010; Scott et al. 2014; Tan 2008) where gender stereotypes embedded in traditional Chinese culture hamper women’s entrepreneurship. Research highlights that men and women differ in their entrepreneurial career aspirations and trajectories as entrepreneurs (Cooke and Xiao 2021) and many national policymakers acknowledge these differences. The social role theory of gender differences in the traditional Chinese context highlights men as the family income generator and women as the caregiver of the family (Cooke and Xiao 2021). The role of gender is very complex in China where traditional culture and religious beliefs in Asia dictate the inferior status of women in their daily lives, which has spilled over into the realm of entrepreneurship (Cooke and Xiao 2021). The internalisation of Chinese culture and beliefs has resulted in many women prioritising family over career development. This alongside sociocultural attitudes that men are considered more capable than women, has in some cases undermined women’s self-confidence (Cooke and Xiao 2021). Women in China accept self-employment for multiple reasons including work-life balance, career development, and self-actualisation (Li et al. 2020; Ng, Huang, and Liu 2016; Zhu, Kara, and Zhu 2019). Chinese culture emphasises a preference for male entrepreneurship with women perceiving it as less desirable (Diaz-Garcia, Sáez-Martínez, and Jiménez-Moreno2015). This affects women entrepreneurs’ motivations for business creation and development as well as the types of challenges that they face (Henry, Foss, and Ahl 2016; Jennings 2013). Some studies suggest that in cases where women perceive disadvantages in self-employment, they may value job security more so than males (Haslett and Leidel 2015).

Given the complexity of gender in the context of China, we suspect that it is embedded in both the ECA and IGVs. For example, Haslett and Leidel (2015) found that national culture and gender influenced workplace values among Chinese students. Coetzee and Schreuder (2008) also found that gender significantly influenced differences in career anchors, with males demonstrating higher aspirations towards general management, entrepreneurial creativity, pure challenge, and autonomy career anchors (Fernández and Gervilla 2013; Ruiz-Alba et al. 2015), with females showing preferences for security and stability career anchors (Coetzee and Schreuder 2008; Ünal and Gizir 2014). In addition, perceptions of gender reflect national cultural values (Hofstede 2001) including the masculinity and femininity dimension. Prince-Gibson and Schwartz (1994) found that men valued self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, and power whereas Kong, Zhao, and You (2012) found that self-esteem in the context of life satisfaction and emotional intelligence was stronger for Chinese adolescent males than for females. Given the complexities of the interaction of gender with our core concepts, we therefore propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 3:

Gender is a covariate in the moderated relationship between the entrepreneurial career anchor (ECA), in-group collectivist values (IGVs) and self-cultivation (SC).

Methods

Sample and procedure

We conducted this study in 2019. Our sample comprised prospective graduates from a top-tier University in the People’s Republic of China. 643 students were selected out of a population of 2,700 Undergraduate students in the School of Management (24%). At the time of the study, 87.7% of the respondents were aged 18–21. They are therefore likely to be representative of and become China’s future employees, managers, and leaders over the next several decades (Druckman and Kam 2009).

The first and fifth authors contacted the students. The first author was a visiting Lecturer at the Faculty of Management, and the fifth author worked full-time in the Faculty of Management and was also bilingual in Chinese Mandarin and English. The study was approved by the Department of Management and Ethics Committee at the University. Recruitment for participation in the survey was achieved by convenience sampling. To achieve a higher response rate, hard copies of the survey questionnaire were distributed, completed, and returned during class time.

To ensure data quality, while maximising participants’ response rate, each questionnaire survey started with a brief explanation of the study and the time involved and took approximately ten minutes to complete. Respondents were asked to fill out the questionnaire anonymously and independently using the paper-and-pen method. Confidentiality was assured. The presence of researchers is generally recommended to improve the quality of data collected, as this tends to solicit true responses from the student respondents (Chen, Hui, and Sego 1998). The survey was initially transcribed in English and then carefully translated into Chinese Mandarin. This was done through a process of iterative translation and back-translation (Brislin’s 1970), by both the second and third authors, who then back-translated the survey into English to ensure semantic equivalence (Schaffer, Riordan, and Christine 2003). The survey contained basic demographics such as gender, age, region (within China), and programme of study. Except for region, all control items in this questionnaire used closed questions. The survey was initially piloted amongst 30 Chinese prospective graduates. Hard copies of the Chinese-translated questionnaire surveys were distributed by the first and third authors.

The context of prospective graduates in China

We investigate the relationships discussed above amongst prospective graduates in China. SC is linked to Confucianism, a unique cultural phenomenon across China and East Asia (Chuang and Wang 2018; Wang et al. 2005), it is important to understanding human development within this region (Peters 2020). Confucianism includes characteristics such as group solidarity, effective organisational skills, a strong work ethic, an emphasis on education (Reischauer 1974), and self-cultivation (Duan et al. 2022). While China is a relevant context for investigating SC, SC is also prevalent in India (Slote 2020) and can also be found in Western cultures such as modern Germany (Bruford 1975; Elliott 2020) as well as the ancient Greco-Roman world (Gowans 2021). We argue that SC has achieved increased prominence in China over the past two decades due to its emergence as one of the world’s largest economies (Cheung et al. 2015; Ralston et al. 2015). This economic transformation has resulted in significant conflict between traditional Chinese values and the requirements for economic development and growth such as risk-taking and entrepreneurship (Cao et al. 2018). China has become a major entrepreneurial and market-oriented country prioritising job prestige, job preferences, and greater social mobility (Xu 2005). However, this development is not uniform, with coastal provinces, regions undergoing significant economic development (Hurrell and Woods 2000), and inland cities and regions not benefiting to the same extent (Poncet 2005). In addition, cultural values vary significantly across China, a country characterised by regional sub-cultures (Song et al. 2019; Xu 2006). Given the heterogeneity of China in terms of cultural values we conducted our study in Baoding, an important industrial city in the central Hebei province. We chose the university in the Baoding region for several reasons. China’s economic development has disproportionally benefitted those cities in the coastal provinces and coastal regions (Hurrell and Woods 2000). Cities and regions further inland have not benefitted to the same extent (Poncet 2005). Baoding is in a northern, coastal area of China. It lies in the centre of the Bohai Rim economic area that includes Beijing, Tianjin, and Shijiazhuang, hence entrepreneurship is an important priority in this region. We specifically focused on prospective graduates and potential future entrepreneurs. We derived a sample from a university located in an important industrial city within an economically dynamic region of China focused on developing entrepreneurship. This fits with the core concepts that are the focus of our study.

Prospective graduates represent a younger generational cohort, one that arguably has been more exposed to individualist values on one hand, yet also upholds traditional collectivist values on the other (Kwon 2012), representing the potential nexus of two seemingly opposite mindsets. Furthermore, a recent study showed prospective graduates in Taiwan prioritising workplaces associated with self-cultivation, long-term development, utilitarian orientation, intrinsic preferences, interpersonal harmony, and innovation (Chuang and Wang 2018; Xuanfang, Yanping, and Yidong 2014). Therefore, our study context and sample of prospective graduates are a good fit with the key concepts investigated in this study.

Study measures

Entrepreneurial Career Anchor (ECA)

The entrepreneurial anchor was measured using Schein’s (1990) entrepreneurial career anchor scale. Using a five-point Likert scale (scores 1–5), survey participants were questioned on the importance of each work value relating to their ‘ideal’ job. A high score indicated an endorsement of the entrepreneurial anchor, ranging from one (1) ‘not at all important to me’ and five (5) ‘extremely important to me’. The entrepreneurial dimension included the following three items, ‘I am always on the lookout for ideas that would allow me to start my own business’, ‘Building my own business is more important to me than achieving a high-level managerial position in someone else’s organisation’ and ‘My career will be a success when I have successfully started my own business’. The alpha reliability coefficient for this scale was $<$=.762.

Self-cultivation (SC)

The Chinese Value Survey (CVS), developed by Bond and colleagues was originally designed for people living in the China, East Asia context. Of the 40 values measured, 39 neatly form four dimensions. The first and largest scale of the CVS was the integrity and tolerance, development of self-scale. This included 17 value statements looking at the development of self, social stability, and strong family bonding (Bond 1987; Matthews 2000). The second dimension, Confucian ethos, focused on the relationship with others. The third dimension, Loyalty to ideals looked at social responsibility. The fourth and final scale of moderation and moral discipline focused on worldly wisdom (Bond 1987). In measuring self-cultivation (SC), we chose the first scale, CVS 1, integrity and tolerance, the development of self.

The respondents were asked to respond using a nine-point Likert-type scale (1 to 9). One (1) represented a value that was ‘of no importance to me’ and nine (9) ‘of supreme importance to me’ on the following scales: filial piety, industry – working hard, tolerance of others, harmony with others, humbleness, kindness – forgiveness and compassion, knowledge – education, self-cultivation, sense of righteousness, personal steadiness and stability, sincerity, persistence – perseverance, patience, adaptability, prudence – carefulness, trustworthiness, and courtesy. The alpha reliability coefficient for this scale was $<$= .944.

In-Group Collectivist Values (IGVs)

The scales used to measure in-group collectivist values were taken from the Globe Societal-Level and Organizational-Level Scales and Measures (House et al. 2004). They included eight pairing scales, and each of the eight scales contained two items. Sixteen items in total were used to measure IGVs. For example, Societal-Level In-Group Collectivism Values included the following two questions, ‘In this society, children should take pride in the individual accomplishments of their parents: (reverse scored)’ and ‘In this society, parents should take pride in the individual accomplishments of their children: (reverse scored)’.The alpha reliability coefficients for this scale were $<$= .736 for IGVs.

Control variables

Previous studies show that individual demographic characteristics, such as gender, age, and tenure (Adkins and Naumann 2001; Hou, Li, and Tu 2014; Lin, Yanping, and Hou 2015) were effective predictors of employee (in our case prospective graduates) in-role and extra-role performance. We, therefore, included the following control variables: age, gender, region, and programme of study.

Data analysis

Before hypothesis testing, the authors performed preliminary analyses to explore the possibility of multicollinearity issues and assess factor structure. Due to the potential for common method bias (Conway and Lance 2010) within the multi-factor variables of interest, all scales were tested for multicollinearity. Utilizing correlation analysis and multicollinearity testing, we found no evidence of such problems, as evidenced by the magnitudes of the intercorrelations.

Next, due to the lack of reporting of factor structure in previous work utilising Bond’s (1987) measure of Chinese Work Values, both exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted. Firstly, the EFA was undertaken to determine what items fell into unique factors within the sample. After assessing these results and reviewing previous literature using this scale, the researchers employed CFA to determine the validity of the measurement model and the distinctiveness of the self-cultivation factor. The results of the CFA can be found in Table 1. The fit indices in Table 1 show an acceptable fit of the factor structure in the comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). While the fit indices for RMSEA and SRMR are somewhat high, they are not unduly alarming, therefore, we concluded that this factor structure is valid and proceeded to hypothesis testing.

Table 1. Fit indices for the robust, ordinal confirmatory factor analysis.

Fit Indices
Chi-square	2126.49
CFI	.900
TLI	.885
RMSEA	.162
SRMR	.069

Results

To begin hypothesis testing we first conducted descriptive and correlational analyses. The directional relationships are reported in Table 2. We found significant relationships between the focal study variables. Gender was negatively correlated to ECA indicating that females had a weaker ECA than males. Additionally, gender was negatively correlated with IGVs, with female participants reporting lower levels of IGVs compared to males.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix.

	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1 Gender	-	-	-
2 Entrepreneurial	3.28	.789	−.189**	-
3 Self-Cultivation	7.29	.051	.021	.263**	-
4 In-Group Values	3.75	.024	−.095*	.055	−.138**	-

*p<.05 **p<.01.

Of the focal variables presented in Figure 1, ECA was positively related to self-cultivation (SC), supporting Hypothesis 1. ECA had no significant relationship with IGVs. Additionally, IGVs were negatively correlated with SC, indicating that those more engaged in collectivist values are less driven by the cultivation of the self.

Figure 1. Study Research Model.

Moderation

For additional hypothesis testing, we utilised the PROCESS macro (Hayes 2012) Model 1, to explore moderation. Hypothesis 2 predicted that In-Group Values (IGVs) would moderate the relationship between the ECA and SC. We found a significant interaction effect when using IGVs as a moderator between ECA and SC (effect=.2377, SE = .1040, p = .0225, 95% CI = .0336: .4418). As highlighted in Figure 2, there is a stronger relationship between SC and ECA when IGVs are high rather than low. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 is supported.

Figure 2. Interaction Effect of IGVs on ECA and SC.

To explore the effect of gender, we incorporated gender as a covariate in the moderating relationship between the ECA, IGVs, and SC. When we included gender as a covariate in the model, the interaction effect became less significant than with IGVs alone (effect=.0813, SE = .0398, p = .0415, 95% CI = .0032: .1594). This supports Hypothesis 3 in that gender has an additional effect on the relationship between ECA, IGVs, and SC. This relationship is stronger for men as they hold significantly stronger ECA and IGVs than the women in the sample.

Discussion

Theoretically, our study enriches the career anchors and IHRD literature. First, utilising COR theory, we bridge the literature gap by investigating COR informed resources as predictors and moderators of SC for prospective graduates in China. Our findings also support the resource investment principle of COR theory (Hobfoll et al. 2018). We utilised COR theory as a motivational theory (Hobfoll et al. 2018), broadening its application to understanding the operation of personal, contextual, and energy resources.

We established a direct relationship between the ECA and SC and the salience of IGVs as an amplifier of that relationship (Ballout 2007; Pohlmann and Hannover 2006). Additionally, in line with research in the context of career anchors, work values, and recent studies on female entrepreneurship (Cho et al. 2021; Cho, Li, and Chaudhuri 2020; Cooke and Xiao 2021) we found that gender interacts with IGVs in explaining these relationships (Barhate and Dirani 2021). Our findings highlight a negative correlation between SC and IGVs. This is an intriguing finding and challenging in terms of explaining why the relationship is negative. Potentially it may be explained as a generational issue given that our sample of prospective graduates prioritise self-learning, self-reflection, self-improvement, self-restraint, and self-dedication (Duan et al. 2022) rather than collectivist values. We suggest that this relationship merits more investigation in future studies.

Second, we extend our understanding of the ECA in the context of IHRD. Central to the ECA is the idea that individuals will be proactive, show initiative, risk-taking, and entrepreneurial behaviour (Schein 1990). This is linked to self-development, self-enhancement, and the cultivation of important skills, abilities, and mindsets (Collewaert et al. 2016; Gartner, Carter, and Reynolds 2010). Studies show that individuals with the ECA tend to be more career focused, they tend to prioritise personal motivations such as the need for change, personal freedom, challenge, and achievement (Zhao and Seibert 2006) as well as developing projects and taking risks to obtain personal prominence (Kuratko, Hornsby, and Naffziger 1997; Matlay 2005; Schein 1990). The concept of SC gives primacy to the notions of the development of self, industry and trustworthiness, harmony with self, family, and social stability as well as the development of the social person (Bond 1987). These are values that are also central to IHRD (Duan et al. 2022; Hassan 2007).

Third, our findings show the ECA-SC relationship is elevated and strengthened by the wider cultural context, in the form of high IGVs as a condition or contextual resource. This finding supports those of other studies and demonstrates the importance of national culture through IGVs as a key dimension of context. The question arises as to why IGVs functioned as a moderator. China is a highly collectivist culture (Bond 1987; House et al. 2004), IGVs are personal ‘aspirations’ concerning social, collective pride (House et al. 2004; Maseland and van Hoorn 2009), they were measured individually and were valuable in the context of the ECA-SC relationship (House et al. 2004). This finding supports the operationalisation found in the GLOBE study that people behave according to their values (House et al. 2004). It indicates that SC is culturally embedded and linked to Confucianism and that SC is perhaps something unique to the Chinese and East Asian context. Individual-level occupational decisions to engage in either commercial (Uhlaner and Thurik 2007) or social enterprises, can be attributed to differences in cultural values (Roccas et al. 2002). This finding builds on previous research that individual career decisions are influenced primarily by values (Knafo and Sagiv 2004; Noseleit 2010). Our findings suggest that contrary to being opposites, individualism as represented through the ECA, and collectivism represented through SC and IGVs, that they are mutually supportive and complementary (Chen 2002).

Our findings indicate that gender interacts with IGVs as moderators. We found that gender (females) was negatively correlated with SC (0.021), loyalty (−0.102*), and IGVs (−0.095*) and females scored lower on all study variables. This finding builds on previous research highlighting the potential interaction of national culture and gender in explaining work values (Haslett and Leidel 2015). This is an especially important finding in that it highlights the complexity of gender and cultural values. Some studies suggest that males are more likely to demonstrate entrepreneurial behaviours than females (Fernández and Gervilla 2013). Other studies attribute this to sociocultural preferences towards male entrepreneurship (Díaz-García, Sáez-Martínez, and Jiménez-Moreno 2015). This could affect the motivation of female entrepreneurs towards business creation and development and thereby limiting their development and potential (Liu 2013).

Our findings show gender as negatively correlated with the ECA, with females scoring low on all aspects of the ECA. Females also reported lower levels of IGVs. While gender was negatively related to the ECA and IGVs, the interaction effect of gender as a covariate with IGVs however became more significant than with IGVs alone. Gender, therefore, had an additional effect on the ECA, IGVs, and SC relationship. This finding is supported by other studies that show feminine values overlapping with IGVs (Kong, Zhao, and You 2012). Feminine traits such as caring for others, harmonious social relations, well-being, and balance tend to overlap with IGVs more so than masculine traits and characteristics. Prince-Gibson and Schwartz (1994) found consistent gender differences in individual-level values, with females considering benevolence and security to be most important whereas males placed a higher value on self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, and power. Our findings suggest the need for greater support and education for women embarking on entrepreneurial career paths at a national, organisational, and individual level (Cho et al. 2021; Cooke and Xiao 2021).

Overall, a key motivation for this study was linked to evidence of increasing entrepreneurial behaviour activity in China (Cao et al. 2018; Duan et al. 2022). This was in addition to concerns relating to the application of Western concepts and theories when studying IHRD (Li and Madsen 2010; Tsui 2006). We confirm the predictive power of the EC on SC and utilising COR as our theoretical framework we generated important insights concerning the role of IGVs and gender. Whilst our findings relating to females and entrepreneurship, confirmed those of previous studies, as previously discussed these may be attributed to socio-cultural factors. This would also suggest the need for a fuller understanding as to why this was the case.

Limitations and future research

Our study has several limitations. First, the study is cross-sectional and therefore may be influenced by CMV. We did, however, test for CMV and found no evidence of multicollinearity. Second, the context of the study is itself a limitation concerning the generalisability of findings. China is a country with significant cultural variations in terms of regions, areas as well as demography, and generational cohorts (Song et al. 2019; Xu 2006).

Second, our results may have limited transferability and generalisability to the overall Chinese and East Asian context. We collected the data at a single location in a university in China, therefore, we cannot generalise to other regions and areas and other generational groups across China. Studies show stark differences amongst the age cohorts in China and East Asia (Chuang and Wang 2018). Third, we conducted the study with a population of prospective graduates therefore the findings may be different with managers or individuals already in the labour market (Barhate and Dirani 2021; Chuang and Wang 2018). Fourth, while the SC concept is prevalent in East Asia through the Confucian ethical tradition (Slote 2020), it also has application to the Indian, German, and ancient Greco-Roman traditions. Further research should investigate the ECA-SC (Bruford 1975; Elliott 2020; Gowans 2021) relationship among prospective undergraduates in other contexts in both high individualist as well as high collectivist cultures outside China, and East Asia (Hofstede 2001; House et al. 2004).

In terms of future research, there are several potentially fruitful avenues of investigation. First, a follow-up more longitudinal study could be considered, one that would examine how the ECA-SC link evolves within a high in-group collectivist context, one that looks at both in-group collectivist values and practices (House et al. 2004; Maseland and van Hoorn 2009). Second, qualitative research should also be considered to further understand the interplay between the ECA and the SC, as well as the role of IGVs and gender in elevating the strength of the ECA-SC link. Further studies should also examine the interplay between other career anchors such as technical/functional competence, general management, autonomy/independence, and the role played by national work values amongst prospective graduates (Costigan, Gurbuz, and Sigri 2018; Schein 1990). Our study lends further support to Cho et al. (2021) who call for further studies, using mixed methodologies to uncover new insights into women’s entrepreneurship that both include and go beyond China, and East Asia context (Cooke and Xiao 2021).

Implications and recommendations for HRD practice

Our findings have important practical implications in respect of the future workforce and talent pools for Chinese NHRD and IHRD practice. The first important HRD implication concerns the creation of stronger links between educators, career guidance counsellors, and industry practitioners in adopting ‘best fit’ career development strategies within the respective Chinese national and international context. This would involve embedding training and development structures for the future workforce and the organisational talent pool, working across multinational teams and organisations, and enabling self-development processes. Self-development initiatives and opportunities should link the development of the ECA-SC relationship amongst prospective graduates. This would provide broader development, moving away from the narrowly focused career development typical of the Western context (Chuang and Wang 2018). Given that the ECA takes time to develop (Schein 1990), we recommend that prospective graduates have access to different companies that provide opportunities essential to the development of the ECA. HRD strategies should include mentoring and broader self-development to further strengthen the ECA. International HRD professionals should also be aware of IGVs (Pathak and Muralidharan 2016) as a condition and a contextual resource supportive of the ECA-SC relationship.

Third, ECA provides prospective graduates with an important ‘personal resource’ that drives SC, an ‘energy resource’. HRD professionals can assist prospective graduates identify ECA and SC by addressing their long-term personal, and career development goals and align them with those of the organisation. They can do this by linking entrepreneurial behaviours, such as innovation, risk-taking propensity, and challenge to SC. These are central to HRD (Hassan 2007), because they include self-improvement, learning, and reflection (Duan et al. 2022). Fourth, IGVs should be considered when developing IHRD strategies in high collectivist contexts, in addition to low collectivist and high individualist contexts where they are absent. It is incumbent on HRD professionals in both Chinese national and international contexts to be cognisant of the role of gender and promote the development of programmes for aspiring women entrepreneurs that incorporate and develop entrepreneurial competencies.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.