Experimental Study of Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber with Rice Husk and Wood Powder Polymer Matrix Composite

ABSTRACT

This research examines the mechanical, morphological, and moisture assimilation of composite materials built up from sugarcane bagasse fiber (SBF), rice husk (RH), and wood powder (WP) filler. Regular threads are now regarded as eco-friendly materials because of their sustainability. This article’s goal is to choose between two polymer structures with fiber and matrix: case 1 has epoxy (50%) plus sugarcane bagasse fiber (30%–45%) and wooden powder (5%–20%); case 2 has epoxy (50%) plus sugarcane fiber (30%–45%) plus rice husk (5%–20%). The impact of the mechanical test is compared to obtaining the best fiber volume fraction (V_f), and the failure of cracked surfaces and interfacial bonding analysis is done using SEM as a consequence of matrix cracking, void content, and fiber pullout. In order to get the characterization of materials, Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses were also performed. However, Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber, a single fiber, combined with an epoxy composite matrix demonstrated a strength of 14 to 18 Mpa and 230 to 250 g of weight. Nevertheless, when SBF was combined with hybrid materials like Rice Husk and Wood Powder, it demonstrated superior strength, with an estimate of 16 to 20 Mpa and a weight of 220 to 240 g.

摘要

本研究考察了由甘蔗渣纤维（SBF）、稻壳（RH）和木粉（WP）填料制成的复合材料的力学、形态和吸湿性. 由于其可持续性，普通线现在被视为环保材料. 本文的目标是在两种具有纤维和基质的聚合物结构之间进行选择: 情况1具有环氧树脂（50%）加甘蔗渣纤维（30%–45%）和木粉（5%–20%）; 情况 2 是环氧树脂（50%）加甘蔗纤维（30%–45%）加稻壳（5%–20%）. 将机械试验的影响与获得最佳纤维体积分数（Vf）进行比较，并使用SEM对裂纹表面的失效和界面结合进行分析，作为基体开裂、空隙率和纤维拔出的结果. 为了获得材料的表征，还进行了热重分析（TGA）和X射线衍射（XRD）分析. 尽管甘蔗蔗渣纤维，一种单一纤维，与环氧树脂复合基质结合，显示出14 至 18Mpa 的强度和 230 至 250 g 的重量. 然而，当 SBF 与稻壳和木粉等混合材料相结合时，它表现出了优异的强度，估计为 16 至 20 兆帕，重量为 220 至 240 克.

KEYWORDS:

• SBF
• SCMM
• Mechanical testing
• Morphological studies
• Moisture
• TG

关键词:

• 机械试验
• 形态学研究
• 潮湿

Introduction

The regular strands are built up with suitable lattices to create natural fiber-supported composite materials. Different filaments are positioned in polymer frameworks that offer several advantages including lightweight, a low preparation cost, and ease of planning. The optional materials that are most commonly exhibited are hemp, rice husk, bagasse, peanuts, flax, palm, rice straw, oat straw, and wheat straw (Sathees Kumar and Kanagaraj 2016, 380). The combination of the materials offers greater structural strength, economy, and compactness. Two different sets of hybrid materials were applied and expressed in this study. Both single-fiber composites and hybrid-fiber composites are used to separate new filaments from old strands using various techniques. The planning of single-fiber and hybrid-fiber built-up composites often uses polymer-based normal fiber-supported composites (Jacoba, Thomasa, and Varugheseb 2004, 957). Due to weight savings over the materials and WP’s lower density compared to SBF, the SBF with WP composition was employed in the research described here. The silica component of the RH material was employed in this study to promote better bonding ability among all elements of the construction. According to Sakthi Sugars Limited, which is based in the Erode region, Sakthi Sugars provides high-quality pure white sugar and refined sugar by employing leading innovation and its dependable cycle. A very low NSR (Insoluble Residue) estimate of under 20 ppm indicates that the sugar produced is in compliance with international standards. Once the sugarcane is extracted from the stick juice, sinewy accumulation known as bagasse results. By using bagasse as fuel for the high-pressing factor boilers in the cogeneration power plants, we were able to create steam and power. The Sakthi Nagar, Sivaganga, and Modakurichi cogeneration power plants are worked on by the influence division. The maximum combined force for each of the three units is 92 MW. The current squander of SBF employs the mechanical qualities as defined by the ASTM standards and the polymer matrix used by SCMM to build composite materials (Deepa et al. 2020; Annual book of ASTM standards 1970). Significant advantages of the SBF include its low thickness, high strength, high modulus, moderate planning cost, and ease of handling (Ku et al. 2011; Karthi and Marimuthu 2019, Fatriasari et al. 2022; Heller et al. 2020; Jhanji, Gupta, and Kothari 2021, 50; Verma, Gope, and Maheshwari 2012; Yulika Sari, Polaris, and Ramdhan 2019, 13). For the manufacture of composite materials for the maritime and aviation industries, mechanical characteristics are also discovered (Dhawana et al. 2020, 652). The primary goal of both industries is to find low-weight materials; thus, this paper compares the effects of the volume percent of fibers and matrix on tensile, compressive, and impact tests as well as water absorption tests (Oluwole Oladele et al. 2022). SEM examination was done to determine the microstructure of the naval SBF with WP combinations (SW) and SBF with RH combinations (SR) materials that was supplied, as well as to determine the chemical composition of the materials by an X-Ray diffraction (XRD) test. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) was carried out because thermal stability is crucial in polymer matrix composites (PMCs) comprised of natural fibers (Alaa Alawy et al. 2021, 132). This research paper is highly innovative since it aims to create composite materials and manage & recycle post-industrial waste effectively (Collier et al. 1992). Materials from the source industries, such as bagasse, rice husk, and wood powder, are used to create a composite design with essential syntheses and to express suitable strength and economical results that demonstrate quality and efficacious utilization of post-industrial waste. Also, there are various uses and advantages for the newly developed materials, which are created from polymer lattice composite (Reddy and Yang 2015).

Materials

Sugarcane fiber

The bagasse is made from various barrel stem fragments that have had their outer skin and inner medulla crushed together. The South Indian Textile Research Association (SITRA), which is based in Coimbatore, conducted tests on the chemical composition of SBF, which included a density of 1.15 g/cc, cellulose content of 61.94%, hemicellulose of 23.15%, pectin of 4.27%, lignin (Method: SITRA/TC/FCC/02) of 17.65%, ash and moisture content (Method: IS 199) of 9. At sugar plants and industrial facilities, the stem of the barrel is crushed, resulting in 30% of the deposits left behind by the catastrophic bagasse. These findings must be improved today for both logical and pragmatic reasons. For example, in the domain of materials and composites, a modification of low natural impact side effects is fascinating for the manufacture of new products. The filaments’ lengths are erratic and uncontrolled because bagasse is a blend of the two sides. Nonetheless, bagasse may be used to make useful filaments because of its high cellulose and fiber content. The paintings that were primarily concerned with depicting the mass of strands are divided into distinct categories (Acharya, Mishra, and Mehar 2009).

Rice husk

Eliminating the dish from the uncooked rice results in the creation of the rice’s edges. When the grain travels between two grating surfaces that move at different speeds, the strip is removed by a scraped region. After decoction, the strip is pulled out and transferred to a storage area outside the plant. It may very well be easily collected and modest. For small-scale projects like the construction of blocks, steam motors, and gasification needed to maintain rice factories and generate heat for rice dryers, a specified quantity of rice husk has constantly been employed as a fuel source. A rice frame is another name for the rice husk, which is what covers the rice grain or seed. It is made of hard substances like lignin and silica to protect the seed during the growing season. As a byproduct of creating rice during pounding, each kilogram of pulverized white rice yields around 0.28 kg of rice husk. The composition of rice husk, which accounts for 20% of the total impact of rice, is as follows: cellulose (half), lignin (25%–30%), silica (15%–20%), and stickiness (10%–15%). The rice husk has a modest clear thickness that ranges from 90 to 150 kg/m³ (Binoj et al. 2016).

Wood powder

Expanding the wood powder allows for synthesis. The findings demonstrated that the amount of wood powder affects foothold and flexion. The results revealed that the bagasse had a thickness of 1.15 g/cc and the WP had a thickness of 0.4175 g/cc. WP thus found compounds with greater thicknesses up to 80% (or) 1,078.29 kg/m³. WP has more grounded and unyielding characteristics (Yulika Sari, Polaris, and Ramdhan 2019).

Resin and hardener

The Epoxy resin (LY-556) with Hardener (HY-951) matrix was selected to act as a bonding agent between the fibers. With a 4:1 ratio, this matrix offered good bonding between the fibers. Lightweight, resistant to the majority of acids and alkalis, resistant to stress cracking, maintaining stiffness and flexibility, minimal moisture absorption, non-staining, and simple to fabricate are just a few of this matrix’s attributes. Epoxy resin needs a hardener, commonly referred to as a catalyst, to start curing. A hardener hardens the adhesive when combined with epoxy resin. The precise choice and blending of the epoxy and hardener components define the final properties and applicability of the epoxy matrix. The density of the matrix is 1.14 g/cm³ (Habibi, Laperrière, and Mahi Hassanabadi 2019, 1073; Kubera Sampath Kumar et al. 2022, 4473).

Methods

The fabrication procedure and techniques are depicted in Figure 1, and we begin by hacking the SBF into fine-cleaved RH and wood powder. At that moment, each filament was weighed based on an estimation of the volume division, the volume part of the fiber V_f, and the volume part of the matrix (lattice) V_m. According to the formula generated, the volume percentage of the matrix and fibers is weighted. The volume of fiber (V_f) divided by the volume of composite (V_c), also known as matrix material, yields the volume fraction of fiber (V_f). The formula for calculating the matrix is a mass of fiber (m_f) = density of fiber to the volume of fiber (V_f). (210 × 160) mm² of the die set is used to measure the total volume of composite removed from the die setup used to fabricate composite materials. Table 1 displays the numerical values for each composition as well as the predicted mass of composite materials.

Figure 1. Fabrication process (SCMM) – setup.

Table 1. Fiber weight calculation.

Volume fraction of fiber (%)	Weight of fiber in (g)
	SBF	RH	WP
5	11.988	6.48	1.684
10	23.976	12.96	3.369
15	35.964	19.44	5.054
20	47.952	25.92	6.739
25	59.94	32.4	8.424
30	71.928	38.88	10.108
35	83.916	45.36	11.793
40	95.904	51.84	13.478
45	107.982	58.32	15.163
50	119.88	64.8	16.848
55	131.868	71.28	18.532
60	143.856	77.76	20.217
65	155.844	84.24	21.902
70	167.832	90.72	23.587
75	179.82	97.2	25.272
80	191.808	103.68	25.956
85	203.796	110.16	28.641
90	215.784	116.64	30.326
95	227.772	123.12	32.011

The ratio of Hardener and resin, which is considered to be 4:1, was individually calculated for each component before being combined in a bowl. The 4:1 matrix is blended until it resembles a light cream. The chosen fiber is added to the bowl and mixed using the hand layering technique (HLT) while wearing a safety glove. They are combined till we can feel the warm warmth in our hands. The combined fiber is then placed inside a die to create the desired shape. To create a perfect surface completeness without good and poor moments, slamming is done on top. The lid is put under a lot of pressure to fix it by tightening the bolt and nut, semi-compression molding machine (SCMM). The plate will be ready after 12–24 hours, and crushing will be done on the sides for excellent surface completion (Ishida et al. 2020, 43; Kausara 2016). After cutting the plate in accordance with ASTM requirements, mechanical testing was conducted.

While creating composite plate constructions, the weight of the composite is a crucial task. These articles control the RH and WP levels while also adding recorded SBF. When WP varies from 5% to 20%, the proposed blend of V_f consistently affects total mass of composite (M_c) when RH varies from 5% to 20% by reducing the mass of composite Mc. Figure 2 shows that when WP and RH both contracted with SBF while adding 5% of V_f, the total mass of the composite created an 8% deviation. In contrast, when 20% of V_f was added with SBF, just a 2% departure occurred.

Figure 2. Effect of M_c.

$Weightratio(W)=weightoffiber\frac{\left(wf\right)}{weight}ofcomposite$

With the aid of the standard fiber density outlined in Section 2 and based on the volume fraction of fiber (V_f), the mass or weight of the fiber (RH, WP, and SBF) is calculated illustrating in Figure 2. The Weight ratio (Wr) of RH and WP was shown in relation to the volume fraction of fiber mixed with SBF in Figure 3. At first, the Wr difference between RH and WP was linear, but as the volume fraction of fiber increased due to the effect of SBF, the linear difference decreased and became close to both the Wr of RH and WP. In order to bring Wr closer together and increase the volume percentage of fiber, these papers give samples of SW and SR means. It was also noted that sample SR showed minimal fluctuation when increasing the volume fraction of fiber RH, but sample SW showed significant variance with increasing the V_f of WP.

Figure 3. Weight ratio of RH and WP with respect to volume fraction of SBF.

Experimental procedure

This research focuses on mechanical tests including tensile, compressive, and impact tests. Furthermore, it exposes moisture absorption, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis. The standard phenomena and ASTM are to be the foundation for all testing and analysis. The ASTM dimensions for the Tensile test D3039, Compressive test D6641, Impact test D256, SEM analysis are 10 mm², 10 g of weight is used for the XRD analysis, and 1 mm³ of materials must be prepared for the TGA (Annual book of ASTM standards1970; Rusuand and Rusua 2010, 520). The Universal Testing Machine conducts the compressive and tensile tests (UTM). It consists of a load frame, which typically has two backings for the machine. It is necessary to use the load cell, a power transducer, or other techniques to estimate the heap. Generally speaking, supervising policies or quality frameworks requires occasional alignment. In general, a portable crosshead’s movement up and down is controlled at a constant speed. The Universal Testing Machine enables you to tug (shear), squeeze (pressure), twist (flexural), or stretch (ductile) an example of failure. Extensometers are occasionally used in tests that call for a portion of the test example’s response to the crosshead’s development. These devices have electronic displays and a PC interface for viewing and printing. The machine can be a controlled room or a special ecological chamber can be built around the test example for the test. A molding screen is necessary (temperature, wetness, pressure, and so on). In a similar way, one brace supports one piece of cloth on one side, while the second clasp hangs on the other. It is then pushed apart for a few inches. During the test, the average of all the power readings is assumed to represent the average peel force (Sathishkumar, Navaneethakrishnan, and Shankar 2012, 1189; Selvakumar and Meenakshisundaram 2019, 1138).

Using an advanced sign extensometer, the impact test equipment is utilized to calculate how much energy is used by the example. The gadget contains a pendulum with a given mass and length that is elevated to a known height before being let fall. The example rising to purposeful height is affected and broken as the pendulum swings. The difference between the final and underlying values corresponds to the amount of energy lost during the crack. Total T = mg (h_i-h_f), where Total (T) is the tall out energy, m is the mass, g is the speed increase due to gravity, h_i is the underlying tallness, and h_f is the final stature, controls the amount of absolute energy used throughout the break. The impact of the Charpy test composite example relies upon the example direction (Pickering 2016; Xueli et al. 2013, 6).

Clean the little tank, fill it with 1000 ml of water, and weigh an example of fiber to assess the phenomena of moisture analysis. Four samples from each mass component were taken from the ready samples prepared in accordance with ASTM, gauged, and submerged in water. After a certain amount of time, the samples were removed to measure their weight after any residual water had been wiped off of their surfaces. The following equation (Manohar Maharana, Kumar Pradhan, and Kumar Pandit 2021) was used to determine the water absorption percentage.

W_(abs) =$\frac{Wf-Wi}{Wi}\times 100$

W_(abs) stands for the weight of moisture absorbed during a specific period of time, W_f for the weight of the sample at the end of the period, and W_i for the weight of the sample at the beginning. In order to calculate the mean value, the collected information was logged against each mass division. Each mass portion’s water absorption rate was calculated and recorded. The ratio of water mass to material mass, for instance, is known as moisture content (Wang et al. 2013, 282). The 10 mm² sample is ready for SEM image analysis, where an electron beam is used to pierce the surface of the desired materials before photographs of the surface are analyzed via networked computers (Pai Anand et al. 2017, 119; Sathishkumar, Navaneethakrishnan, and Shankar 2012, 2188). A nondestructive method known as an X-ray diffraction examination (XRD) provides precise information on a material’s crystallographic structure, chemical makeup, and physical characteristics. Table 2 lists the parameters for the anchor scan. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is an analytical method that analyzes the weight change that takes place, while a sample is heated at a constant pace in order to assess a material’s thermal stability and the percentage of volatile components. TGA was carried out using a NETZSCH STA 449F3 STA449F3A–1100-M with a TG-DTA Al2O3 Crucible at a heating rate of 30°C/10.0 (K/min)/550°C, while nitrogen was being purged at a rate of 10 ml/min as published (Mohan, Natarajan, and Babu 2011, 257; Sathishkumar et al. 2013, 1462; Kea and Jin 2021, 37; Nazari and Garmabi 2016).

Table 2. Anchor scan parameters.

Scan Axis	Gonio
Start Position [°2θ]	5.0186
End Position [°2θ]	89.9866
End Position [°2θ]	End Position [°2θ] 89.9866
Step Size [°2θ]	0.0130
Scan Step Time [s]	48.1950
Scan Type	Continuous
PSD Mode	Scanning
PSD Length [°2θ]	3.35
Offset [°2θ]	0.0000
Divergence Slit Type	Fixed
Divergence Slit Size [°]	0.4354
Specimen Length [mm]	10.00
Measurement Temperature [°C]	25.00
Anode Material	Cu
K-Alpha1 [Å]	1.54060
K-Alpha2 [Å]	1.54443
K-Beta [Å]	1.39225
K-A2/K-A1 Ratio	0.50000
Generator Settings	30 mA, 45 kV
Diffractometer Type	0000000011155153
Diffractometer Number	0
Goniometer Radius [mm]	240.00
Dist. Focus-Diverg. Slit [mm]	100.00
Incident Beam Monochromator	No
Spinning	Yes

Results

The fabricated composite plate was cut in accordance with ASTM. The class of material kind and different types of testing determine the ASTM measurements necessary for testing materials. In all, 32 instances were tested by various Volume fractions in order to manage the examination to determine the strengths of the SW and SR examples.

Tensile test

Tensile strength, also known as ultimate tensile strength, is computed by dividing the maximum tension force that a sample can sustain by the area of its cross-section. The specimen was placed in the grips of a sturdy universal tester with a 10 mm gauge length, and the load versus extension curve was plotted throughout the test to determine the ultimate tensile strength and elastic modulus. A load cell is attached to the tensile tester to measure tensile force. The tensile strength of the four samples from SW and the additional four samples from SR was measured. The computation uses the average of two tests.

After the discovery of the results, Figure 4 shows a visual representation of the weight percentage of fiber against rigidity (tensile strength). The weight percentage of fiber impregnated in the matrix depicted in Figure 5 was used to calculate the young’s modulus (E_c) of new invention materials of SW and SR. Young’s modulus of a hypothetical composite is Ec = (E_f x V_f) + (E_m x V_m), where E_f includes SBF, WP, and RH filaments and V_f includes the volume changes of all the fibers that range from 5% to 95%.

Figure 4. Tensile Strength.

Figure 5. Young’s modulus.

The results confirmed that while WP added to SBF and the extension not to alter higher for the two situations (SW and SR) produce a reach between 2.18 mm to 2.32 mm illustrated in Figure 6. With a maximum 2.32 mm prolongation, SW’s heap conveying limit is significantly superior to SR’s approximately 800N to 900N and can carry greater loads. The level of strain does not even change by 10% in both SW and SR.

Figure 6. Load VS Extension.

Compression test

A compressive test is a common testing technique used to observe the compressive strength or crush obstruction of material and the capacity of a material to recover after a preset compressive force is supplied and then retained over a certain interval. To determine the material behavior under a heap, compressive tests are used. The most intense pressure that may persist over time under a mass of steadfast reformists is alleviated. The compressive test was conducted by UTM using a tensometer configuration similar to a tensile test but with an inverted load in accordance with the example. The SBF 30%–45% supplemented with WP and RH of varying weight rate as for volume portion of strands and matrix exhibited 5% fluctuation in compressive strength, as shown in Figure 7. Compressive strength can vary between 1% and 3% depending on how SBF and WP are made, and between 1% and 2% depending on how SBF and RH are built. The SR test included a 2.06 mm minimum extension and a 2.82 mm maximum extension.

Figure 7. Compressive Strength.

Impact test

This test may be used as a quick and easy quality control check to determine whether the material satisfies specific effect requirements or assesses materials for overall durability. The energy absorbed in KJ separated by the cross-sectional space of examples determines the impact strength, and the energy absorbed in the volume of examples determines the robustness (toughness). SW examples with various fiber volume portions require more energy than SR examples. Similar to SBF added with RH 5% variation, SBF added with WP 15% impact strength variety experiences altering weight level. Figure 8 shows that there is a 32%–38% difference in impact strength between WP and RH. Because of the strong interface holding between the fiber (SBF) and matrix (Epoxy) durability, as well as the 30%–35% augmentation in SW testing, the toughness parameter that emerged in Figure 9 was notable.

Figure 8. Impact strength.

Figure 9. Toughness.

Moisture analysis

Figure 10 depicts the water absorption by the materials SW and SR at various volume parts. It is stated that the X-axis should be measured in minutes, hours, and days, starting at least with 10 min, 20 min, 40 min, 1 h, 2 h, 5 h, 1 day, 2 days, 5 days, and 7 days, respectively, and the Y-axis should be measured by moisture absorption in grams using the procedure described in Section 4. The instances were broken down starting at least 10 min in order to restrict how long they could be in an immersed state, but it is still being checked for 2 more days to confirm the level of immersion. About 6.67% of the water content was solely absorbed by the materials to reach a saturation level, according to the result from Figure 10, which showed that the saturation level of moisture absorbed by the materials was discovered within 2 days of immersion. Figure 11 demonstrates how variations in the range of water absorption depend on the percentages of WP and RH supplemented with SBF. Figure 11(a–) show that WP has more water absorption than RH, whereas Figure 11(b) shows that both WP and RH have an identical amount of water absorption since SBF is correctly presented at 90% in the new materials. The amount of moisture absorbed by the two samples is almost the same, ranging from 0.6% to 1.1%, and is also contrasted and addressed in works (Rajesh Kumar et al. 2022).

Figure 10. Moisture absorption.

Figure 11. (a) Moisture absorption of SW (5% WP) and SR (5%RH), Graph 10 (b) Moisture absorption of SW (10% WP) and SR (10%RH), Graph 10 (c) Moisture absorption of SW (15% WP) and SR (15%RH), Graph 10 (d) Moisture absorption of SW (20% WP) and SR (20%RH).

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image analysis

To analyze the interfacial bonding, fiber pullout, and voids that were present in the materials, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image was acquired. Figure 12(a) SEM image of SBF+RH and Figure 13(a) SEM image of SBF+WP both show deliberate assessments of the limitation between strands and grid. Despite the fiber and matrix’s consistent bonding, the microstructure of this specimen has a rough surface that is ringed by sizable jewels. Pieces of the related Figure 13(b) show nearby growth of the hydrated precious stones, which adds to the lack of uniformity. Figure 12(b) also shows the occurrence of pores that are 10 µm wide. Figure 12(c,d) depicts the microstructure of SBF with RH; clearly, the example exhibits consistency in porosity. The SBF with WP microstructure is shown in Figure 13(c),. The fiber is dense, and it is certainly holding a matrix. The main factor in increasing the density of self-compacting solidified mortar appears to be the filling of WP. Remarkably, the results of mechanical testing, in particular water absorption tests, and the pictures captured by the electron magnifying lens show a fair amount of consistency. More surface areas on a material’s surface mean more potential sites for bonding, cooperation, and interaction with artificial factors. Given that the full mass of the material’s remaining components remains unchanged, the surface area grows as the molecule’s size shrinks. As the molecule size extends to the tiny/Nano scale, the material receives the best surface area and the most possible reactivity. The void that developed on the materials to be examined in Figures 12(b) and 13(b) has an effect on the density of the structures by around 2% to 4%. As a result of WP and RH being added to the SBF as randomly oriented particles, the assurance of fiber pull-out has decreased. Si, which is present in RH, has also been added, and to enhance the surface’s delicate quality and homogeneous structure, researchers are also examining the amount of calcium hydroxide (CH) precious stones present in the connection point. Yet, tiny nanoparticles have an impact on the growth of such a thick structure by providing numerous response centers for storing hydration components.

Figure 12. SEM image of SR.

Figure 13. SEM image of SW.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis

This XRD work demonstrated the presence of different phases, for example, B1 F7 S1, H14 B10, and Cl12 Te2 Zr1 as displayed in Table 3.

Table 3. Pattern list.

Score	Compound Name	Chem. Formula	Cryst. Syst.
5	Trifluorosulfur(IV) Tetrafluoroborate	B1 F7 S1	Orthorhombic
33	Decaborane-14	H14 B10	Monoclinic
23	Bis(trichlorotellurium) Hexachlorozirconate	Cl12 Te2 Zr1	Hexagonal
61	Bismuth Manganese Oxide (1/1/2.81) – Ordered Model	Bi1 Mn1 O2.81	Cubic
36	Bismuth Niobium Oxide (2.94/1/7)	Bi2.938 Nb1 O7	Tetragonal
62	Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether	C21H24O4	Cubic

Figure 14 displays XRD pinnacles of flimsy film of B1 F7 S1, H14 B10, Bi1 Mn1 O2.81, Bi2.938 Nb1 O7, C21H24O4, and Cl12 Te2 Zr1 in the specific pinnacles that address the tops from the reference library. The important pinnacle, which is located at 22 degrees, has undergone a slight shift. The pinnacles of the B1 F7 S1, H14 B10, and Cl12 Te2 Zr1 structure’s residual era are displayed and noted. It is difficult to distinguish the pinnacles of the H14 B10, Bi2.938 Nb1 O7, and Cl12 Te2 Zr1 stages since they are close to one another. The Location of [°2] in Relation to Height [cts] is stated in Table 4. Likewise, we introduced FWHM for B1 F7 S1 as 0.2047[°2θ], H14 B10 as 0.7164, Bi1 Mn1 O2.81 as 0.6140, Bi2.938 Nb1 O7 as 0.4093 followed by d-spacing 7.54229[Å], 4.00955[Å], 2.59665[Å], and 5.85944 [Å] individually.

Figure 14. XRD analysis.

Table 4. Peak list.

Pos. [°2θ]	Height [cts]	FWHM Left [°2θ]	d-spacing [Å]	Rel. Int. [%]
11.7335	86.91	0.2047	7.54229	34.09
15.1209	254.92	0.7164	5.85944	100.00
22.1712	611.12	0.6140	4.00955	100.00
34.5426	92.01	0.4093	2.59665	15.06

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

Figure 15 of SW’s TGA presentation indicated a residual mass of 38.66% at a temperature of 548.3°C. Prior to melting temperature, no weight loss was seen, proving the substance’s anhydrous nature. The degradation peak, which appears to demonstrate significant drug weight loss commencing at a temperature of roughly 250°C, is followed by the melting peak. Figure 15 of the SR showed 16.83% residual mass, which corresponded to a temperature of 548.3°C and a melting peak that began above 280°C. Due to the elimination of absorbed water, mass losses in the TG curve of the composite were found to be 10–12% below 230°C–280°C and roughly 20% at a temperature range between 230°C and 400°C.

Figure 15. TGA.

Discussions

The accompanying ends were produced using these tried outcomes:

• Concern Tensile Strength of SW Examples shifting of SBF 30%, 35%, 40%, and 45% of volume yielded 19.27 MPa, 19.88 MPa, and 20.32 MPa separately combined with WP weight 20%, 15%, 10%, and 5% of volume. The elasticity of SBF+RH is similarly 15.58 MPa, 15.32 MPa, 16.12 MPa, and 17.26 MPa separately. These analyses of SBF+WP structure results showed 10%–15% greater strength than SBF+RH formation because of the 45% cellulose component present in the SBF which, when combined with WP, offered excellent intermolecular linkage. Similar to case 1, the wood powder also serves as a superb load-off component, making case 1‘s wood powder synthesis the greatest for stiffness. Banana, palm, jute, coir, and sisal fibers had similar volume fraction ranges of 15 Mpa to 25 Mpa when compared to other natural fiber-reinforced composites (Sathishkumar et al. 2013, 1462; Sathishkumar, Navaneethakrishnan, and Shankar 2012, 2188).

• The individual compressive strengths of the SBF+WP component were 44.56 MPa, 46.36 MPa, 48.25 MPA, and 50.23 MPA and also present were 42.40Mpa, 43.25Mpa, 44.23Mpa, and 45.23Mpa in the SBF+RH synthesis. Analysis of these two mixes, which range from 5% to 7%, reveals. The volume section of the strands (SBF), when added with shifting WP volume, produced minimally greater solidity contrast and fluctuating RH volume.

• The impact test to determine material strength is concerned, as shown in figures 8 and 9 with the varying weight levels of WP and RH and the volume portion of SBF added to epoxy pitch. The findings of the effect and strength characteristics of the materials demonstrate that SBF+WP had significantly 30% to 35% more results than SBF+RH. Similar levels of strength were offered in comparison to other natural fiber composites, such as sisal, coir, jute, and palm fiber-reinforced composites.

• The results of the moisture test for the two cases were identical, but the graphical representation showed that the wood powder production absorbed 3% to 5% less moisture than the rice husk arrangement. Similar in composition and volume, sisal, palm, jute, and coir fiber architectures absorb 10% to 15% of moisture (Manohar Maharana, Kumar Pradhan, and Kumar Pandit 2021; Wang et al. 2013, 282). These SBF synthesis fibered materials are recommended for maritime applications and aircraft skin and body.

• The morphology characterization analysis from this determined the chemical composition of SBF, which included a density of 1.15 g/cc, cellulose content of 61.94%, hemicellulose of 23.15%, pectin of 4.27%, lignin of 17.65% (Method: SITRA/TC/FCC/02), ash and moisture content (Method: IS 199) of 9.48% and 6.14%, respectively, and wax content of 0.52%. Because of the uniform bonding arrangements, the SEM image analysis result showed that the SW samples of fiber and matrix could bond more effectively than SR samples. The XRD analysis revealed the components of the materials as well as their chemical formulas, which are shown in Table 3. At the same temperature range of 548°C, TGA analysis revealed that SR samples had superior thermal stability than SW samples by around 22% (Artykbaeva et al. 2022, 7520). For current aircraft interior and marine applications, the optimum choice is the natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite of SW and SR.

Conclusion

The Natural fiber built up epoxy-based composite of Case1-SW-Epoxy (50%) + Sugarcane bagasse fiber (30%–45%) + Wood powder (5%–20%) examples and Case2-SR-Epoxy (50%) + Sugarcane bagasse fiber (30%–45%) + Rice husk (5%–20%) were manufactured applying SCMM strategy. The different mechanical testing of Tensile, Compressive, Impact, and Moisture retention tests was completed by standard UTM and standard marvel. Also, SEM image analysis, XRD testing evaluation, and TGA were performed. This combination of materials is designed to be used in the maritime sector and in airplanes (skin, control surfaces, and interior sections) to reduce the segment’s weight while maintaining the materials’ high level of strength. As compared to the typical composition of single fiber reinforced composite materials, the high quality of strength and weight ratio of the newly introduced materials was investigated.

Highlights

• These materials were developed for use in the marine industry as well as airplanes to reduce segment weight while maintaining high material strength.

• Likewise, the wood powder filler provides significant load off-ratio, so in contrast to cases 1 and 2, the case 1-wood powder synthesis is the best for stiffness.

• However, compared to the rice husk arrangement, the wood powder manufacturing consumes 3% to 5% less moisture in the graphical representation.

• Due to consistent bonding arrangements, the SW samples’ absorption bonding ability between the fiber and matrix was superior than that of the SR samples, according to the results of SEM image analysis.

Acknowledgements

Sincere thanks to Excel Engineering College, Department of Aeronautical Engineering composite research laboratory for providing all necessary facilities made available.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Excel Engineering College (EEC/R&D/Lab facility/01)