ABSTRACT
The proposed study aims to discuss the methodology for measuring and evaluating controlled moisture distribution in woven fabric surfaces in the first part and the construction of woven fabric using hydrophobic and hydrophilic cotton yarns in the second part. Moisture distribution can be controlled in terms of the anisotropic (horizontal and vertical) and isotropic characteristics of the wetting of the cotton woven fabrics based on the combination of hydrophobic and hydrophilic threads. A set of experimental samples using hydrophobic and hydrophilic threads in warp and weft was produced to monitor the moisture (water) distribution in woven fabric surfaces. For evaluating the controlled distribution of moisture (water) in these atypical woven fabric constructions, an algorithm (methodology) was proposed, where the object (liquid) was separated from the background (fabrics) and various objects and geometric characteristics depending on time were evaluated on the object. The algorithm itself consisted of several steps and was executed in a loop for the current frame at a given time.
摘要
本研究旨在讨论第一部分中测量和评估织物表面受控水分分布的方法，以及第二部分中使用疏水性和亲水性棉纱构建织物的方法. 基于疏水性和亲水性线的组合，可以根据棉织物润湿的各向异性（水平和垂直）和各向同性特性来控制水分分布. 制作了一组在经纱和纬纱中使用疏水性和亲水性线的实验样品，以监测织物表面的水分（水）分布. 为了评估这些非典型机织物结构中水分（水）的受控分布，提出了一种算法（方法），其中将物体（液体）与背景（织物）分离，并评估物体上的各种物体和取决于时间的几何特征. 该算法本身由几个步骤组成，并在给定时间针对当前帧循环执行.
Introduction
The final finishing of textile materials is applied to flat fabrics according to standard procedures to create fabrics with the required properties, quality, and appearance. The finishing can use mechanical, chemical, physical, or physical – chemical processes. Finishing can eliminate the negative effects caused by previous operations on textiles. In some cases, finishing can impart properties to a product that it would not normally have.
The standard process of woven fabric production can be simplistically divided into winding, warping, sizing, weaving, desizing, and selected chemical treatment. Chemical treatments are always applied on an industrial scale to an already-made woven fabric as the last operation in the production process. However, the disadvantages of such applied treatments include their low stability during repeated washing and their even distribution in the woven fabric area. Thus, all areas of the woven fabric have the same properties, which is considered standard nowadays, but it is certainly not an optimal use of the possibilities of the woven fabric structure.
The typically inappropriate behavior of a “standard” treated fabric affects its behavior toward sweat released from the skin. As sweat penetrates the woven fabric, the fibers swell and the associated “closure” of the structure prevents the further penetration of sweat in the form of vapor and liquid. If the structure is unevenly adjusted in different but sufficiently close places, breathability and moisture transport through the woven fabric would then be improved.
The standard finishing process consists of applying an antiwetting agent to a flat fabric. Hydrophobic (HPHO) finishing can be divided into two basic types: waterproof and breathable. Many outdoor textiles use different types of coating or membranes depending on their intended use. In this case, it is a kind of alternative to HPHO treatment. Membranes and coating form a separate layer within the textile garment structure. The HPHO treatment forms a thin film directly on the surface of the treated woven fabric. For textile products, the resulting HPHO properties can be influenced in several ways: material (synthetic fibers), woven fabric structure, finishing, additional treatment (special sprays), and HPHO cotton.
Cotton is a cellulosic fiber, and cellulose is known for its natural hydrophilicity (HPHIity) related to the high concentration of polar bonds and hydrogen bridges in its structure. If we must hydrophobize cotton yarns for fabric production (i.e., make the yarn nonwetting/water-repellent), then we must reduce the amount of available polar groups and ionic groups on its surface. Under realistic conditions, only the overlay of an HPHO layer on the surface of the fiber is an option.
On an industrial scale, film formers based on HPHO polymers, such as hydrocarbons, floured hydrocarbons, or polysiloxanes, are used. Hydrocarbons are applied, for example, in the form of zirconia soaps, a relatively environmentally friendly but not very effective solution to hydrophobicity. In the case of floured hydrocarbons, a superior level of hydrophobicity can be achieved but should be considered for restriction in the near future for environmental reasons. Particularly, perfluoroalkanes based on compounds with eight carbons are highly bioaccumulative and biopersistent.
Meanwhile, on an industrial scale, polysiloxanes are widely used as they allow the achievement of high hydrophobicity and stability in washing and are still considered environmentally acceptable. The common application method of these polymers is through aqueous solutions or dispersion.
An interesting solution applicable in practice is the deposition of thin films physically – usually from plasma (Lee et al. Citation2008; Park et al. Citation2013; Tsoi, Kan, and Yuen Citation2011). The advantage of plasma deposition is the saving of chemicals (thinner layers are deposited) and the higher stability of the layers in washing (no need to work with water-soluble or dispersible precursors). In addition to these industrially used solutions, several solutions use various reactive systems, nanoparticles (Dolez et al. Citation2017; Ren, Song, and Xing Citation2013; Roe, Kotek, and Zhang Citation2012; Sfameni et al. Citation2022), and hard-to-reach chemicals (Kick, Grethe, and Mahltig Citation2017; Moller Citation2003; Zhong and Netravali Citation2016). These solutions often result in extreme surface HPHOity and, thanks to the use of nanotechnology, low chemical consumption. However, relevant problems are often due to these solutions’ low treatment durability and their ecological and toxicological disadvantages.
Generally, several methodologies based on different procedures can be used to test the wettability of a textile surface (Li et al. Citation2008; Zhu and Takatera Citation2014). The basic conventional approach is the analysis of weight change. The difference in weight can be evaluated before and after wetting, including the change in weight as a function of time to drying. The sensitivity of scales is not sufficient in this case because of the small liquid content of samples. Another basic method for the analysis of the wetting of textile surfaces is the determination of the wetting angle and wetting area in woven structures through image analysis. Generally, the wettability of a fabric is given by the ratios of surface stresses generated at the interface of the fabric (solid), water droplet (liquid), and air (gas). The surface of the liquid tries to achieve the least possible energy on the solid and therefore occupies the smallest possible surface – thus forming a sphere.
Surface tension is the result of the interaction of the attractive forces of the molecules or atoms that make up the surface layer. This enables the measurement of the wetting angle or contact angle. This is the angle taken by a tangent to the surface of the droplet, drawn at the point of contact between the droplet and the interface. If the angle is less than 90°, fabric wetting occurs. In contrast, if the angle is greater than 90°, no wetting occurs, and the textile can be described as HPHO. The second important parameter besides the wetting angle is the wetted area. According to the structure of the fabric, the wetted area can be assumed as purely circular – that is, the wetting is isotropic (water distribution is the same in all directions) or anisotropic (horizontal or vertical, different in each direction). Another widely used method for evaluating wetting is the use of a Moisture Management Tester (Matusiak Citation2019; Park Citation2016). This device measures electrical resistance or voltage, which is proportional to the water (saline) content of a textile (Hu et al. Citation2005; Schoenfisch et al. Citation2019). The apparatus consists of two jaws. In the upper and lower jaws, there is a plate fitted with metal sensors that form concentric circles. Samples are under fixed pressure between the sensors, and fluid is supplied from above. The output includes data from the upper and lower sensors in computer software. The Moisture Management Tester provides measurements of the sample wetting rate, moisture absorption rate, fluid spreading rate, maximum radius of fluid on the sample, and overall moisture management capability. However, this method is unsuitable for anisotropic wetting surfaces (Sirkova and Mouckova Citation2018). Moreover, the measurement is always evaluated to the shape of the intermediate ring. In the case of asymmetric surfaces, the nonwetted area in the intercircle is included as the wetted area.
The basic goal of this study is to present a methodology suitable for measuring the controlled distribution of moisture in fabrics made of HPHO and HPHI threads in different combinations. The presented article is not focused on measurement of moisture absorptivity of textile fabric as well as testing of thermo-physiological comfort of functional textile and fabrics water vapor permeability and thermal resistance. For that reason, a literature review for textile moisture absorptivity is not presented here. Further studies will be focused on the application of the proposed methodology for monitoring of moisture absorptivity of textile fabric as well testing of thermos-physiological comfort.
As mentioned above, existing methods describing the measurement of wetting are unsuitable for fabrics with a directional distribution of moisture. According to the fabric structure and the construction of the fabric, the wetted surface can be assumed as purely circular wetting is isotropic (water distribution is the same in all directions) or anisotropic (different in individual directions). Existing measurement procedures for measuring the controlled transport of moisture based on the Moisture Management Tester (evaluation of wetting in the annulus, where the nonwetted surface in the annulus is included as the wetted surface in the case of asymmetrical surfaces) are not sufficient. The resulting values of the wetted area do not correspond to the actual wetted area of the fabric. Thus, an objective method of wetting measurement is proposed in the manuscript to describe the noncircular wetting of fabrics, including the definition of the resulting geometric characteristics describing the wetted surface of the fabric.
Materials and methods
Surface treatment of input cotton yarn
HPHO final treatment was applied on twisted staple spun yarns before the weaving of experimental woven fabric samples. Two-ply 100% cotton carded ring spun yarn of count 2 × 29.5 tex (plying twist number S 296 tpm) was used. The yarn was prebleached and colored before the HPHO final treatment. YAMADA CORP./YS-6 equipment was used for the HPHO treatment of the yarn. As part of the treatment, Itoguard LJ 100 conc was tested. The treatment properties were as follows: semitranslucent white emulsion, high hydrophobicity and oleophobicity, stability to electrolytes in treatment baths but sensitivity to alkaline environments, combination with cross-linking agents, and no effect on the whiteness of the material. The composition of the HPHO treatment bath for the cotton yarn is as follows: Itoguardu LJ 100 conc. with a concentration of 40 g/l, 5 g/l Texapret TP, and 1 g/l acetic acid (CH3COOH), made up to 1 l with water. Acetic acid was used to acidify the bath. The preparation of Texapret TP ensured increased stability in washing. show the basic parameters of the cotton yarn before and after HPHO treatment.
Table 1. Properties of the twisted cotton yarn before HPHO treatment.
Table 2. Properties of the twisted cotton yarn after HPHO treatment.
The tensile strength and elongation of the input yarns for weaving were determined using Instron 4411. Hairiness measurements were made on a Zweigle 567. The summary criterion S1 mm expresses the number of hairs in the 1-mm length category, whereas the summary criterion S2 mm gives the number of hair in the 2-mm length category, in both cases relative to a yarn length of 100 m. The S3 mm category indicates the total number of protruding fiber ends longer than 3 mm relative to a yarn length of 100 m. The cotton yarn fiber surface before and after treatment is presented in .
Figure 1. Cotton yarn fiber surface (a) before HPHO treatment and (b) after HPHO treatment (note: yarns before the weaving process).
Preparation of woven fabric samples
The laboratory rapier weaving machine CCI with an electronic dobby shedding mechanism was used for the production of the experimental woven fabric. A straight drafting plan with six frames was used for weaving. The woven fabric sample parameters were as follows: yarn count: 2 × 29.5tex, set of ends (picks) 12/cm, and plain weave. The construction parameters for the warp and weft systems were identical in all experimental woven fabric samples. The basic difference was in the combination of HPHO and HPHI ends and picks in the construction of the woven fabric samples. Experimental samples were produced by combining HPHO and HPHI threads, as presented in .
Table 3. List of all experimental woven fabric samples.
Methodology of moisture distribution measurement in the woven fabric area
The basic method for the woven fabric surface wetting analysis of this study is the use of image analysis. The distribution of moisture on the woven fabric surface was evaluated from recorded videos. Recordings were prepared in standard laboratory conditions with the help of LED diffusion illumination of the samples. A liquid of a given volume is dripped onto the samples using a manual dosing pipette. A drop of water with the same volume of water is used to wet all the experimental fabrics, so that the fabrics can be compared from the point of view of water distribution. The liquid is colored with black ink for better subsequent image segmentation. The liquid distribution is recorded from above by a common camera system () into video files in the *.MOV format. The properties of the video files are listed in .
Table 4. Camera settings.
Table 5. Video properties.
An algorithm was applied to the prepared video files, where the object (liquid) was separated from the background (fabrics) and various object and geometric characteristics depending on time were evaluated on the object. The algorithm itself consisted of several steps, described in . The algorithm was executed in a loop for the current frame at a given time. Image previews for each step are shown in . The geometric characteristics of objects from the processed images can be used depending on the time for the actual description of the liquid distribution on the surface of the fabric. These characteristics are listed in .
Figure 2. Algorithm.
Figure 3. (a, d) frame before liquid application and current frame in RGB. (c, d) images in level gray. (c, f) images filtered using a Gaussian filter with σ = 4. (g) image subtraction. (h) global thresholding. (i) image with a BoundingBox (green) and a convex envelope (yellow) of the object.
Table 6. Selected properties for the object description.
Results and discussion
Woven fabric construction for controlled moisture distribution
Controlled moisture distribution in cotton woven fabrics can be achieved through optimal fabric construction. In the woven fabric construction (according to customer/application requirements), the correct position of the HPHO and HPHI yarns in the warp and weft in the fabric area must be ensured (see examples of simulated fabric constructions in ). Combinations of HPHO and HPHI threads may be used in 2D and 3D woven fabric constructions. 2D woven fabrics have one warp and one weft system (), whereas 3D fabrics have are multiple warps and multiple wefts ().
Figure 4. Simulation of fabric construction with different positions of HPHO and HPHI threads. a) change in thread position in warp, b) change in thread position in weft, c) change in thread position in warp and weft, d) change in thread position in the warp of the 3D fabric (note: gray thread, HPHO; black thread, HPHI).
The threads (ends/picks) in the woven fabric can be technologically arranged in longitudinal and transverse directions in a controlled manner according to the water distribution need. In weaving technology, controlling moisture transfer in the longitudinal direction (warp direction) is possible using sectional warping. On the creel of the sectional warping, the positions of the ends can be arranged with HPHO and HPHI effects. Meanwhile, controlling moisture transfer in the transverse direction is possible by changing picks using weaving machine selectors. One selector controls HPHO picks, whereas a second selector controls HPHI picks. The key to the controlled distribution on the fabric surface is the hydrophobization of the threads before weaving. Surface treatment (hydrophobization) of the cotton yarn before the weaving process ensures that the yarn surface is nonwetting. Apart from the methods of surface treatment of yarns before weaving mentioned in the introduction of this paper, from an ecological perspective, the use of unprepared cotton as a hydrophobized material can be considered promising. Natural untreated cotton has a compact wax-based HPHO layer on its surface. This layer is purposely removed or at least disturbed during the pretreatment of the cotton. The use of untreated cotton fibers and the eventual breeding of cotton to increase its natural HPHOity would be a significant environmental achievement. Within this study as part of the treatment, Itoguard LJ 100 conc was tested.
In terms of the final quality and properties of the modified yarns, the most important properties for their further processing are mainly strength, elongation, hairiness, and mass nonuniformity. The level and variability of the strength and elongation of the yarns affect their breakage rate not only during the preparation operations for weaving but also during the weaving process. Meanwhile, the hairiness of the yarns, characterized by the amount of fiber ends protruding from the yarn, can be divided into areas of sparse hairiness and dense hairiness. Dense hairiness is close to the body of the yarn and has a particularly positive effect on end-use properties. Dense hairiness is, for example, the cause of a higher covering of the fabric, where the yarns have a softer feel and a velvety appearance. Meanwhile, sparse hairiness negatively affects the yarns’ processing properties. From the measurement results (), after the application of the treatment to the yarns, decreases in the strength (the difference is about 10%) and elongation of the yarns (the difference is 19%) were observed. Such decreases in both parameters were probably due to the wetting and drying processes. However, yarn hairiness decreased with the treatment, and this effect was more pronounced as the observed length of the withdrawn fibers increased, with the most pronounced effect in the S3 sum length category (28% decrease). The decrease in hairiness was because the HPHO coating bonded the withdrawn fiber ends to the yarn body. The mentioned differences were minimal and would not affect the weaving process. Even a decrease in hairiness reduces friction between threads during weaving. The surface of the experimental woven cotton fabrics is presented in . Electron scanning microscopy images show the HPHO treatment on both warp and weft yarns in detail. The modification of the yarns is not apparent from the images of the flat fabric. On this basis, the images for the other fabrics in the combination of HPHO warp and HPHI weft were not shown.
Figure 5. Surface structure of the cotton fabrics: a) HPHO warp and weft, b) HPHI warp and weft, c) HPHO warp thread detail, d) HPHI warp thread detail, e) HPHO weft thread detail, and f) HPHI weft thread detail.
Evaluation of moisture distribution in the woven fabric area
An algorithm was applied to the prepared video files, where the object (liquid) was separated from the background (fabrics) and various object and geometric characteristics depending on time were evaluated on the object. The geometric characteristics of objects from the processed images depend on the time for the actual description of the liquid distribution on the surface of the fabric. shows BoundingBoxes and ConvexHulls for objects (liquid) for three differently constructed woven fabrics (samples 1–3; see ) before the end of the moisture distribution process.
Figure 6. (a – c) fabric samples 1–3 with moisture distribution before the end of the process.
The moisture distribution over the surface of the woven fabrics can be seen from the results () of the time-dependence plots of the geometric characteristics presented in for the experimental samples 1–9 in . Sample 2 contained a hydrophobic warp and weft.
Figure 7. Results of selected properties for moisture distribution characterization for fabric samples 1–9 depending on time.
Samples 1, 4, 5, and 6, which contained HPHI warps and HPHI wefts in different pick ratios, showed an increase in the Area of the moisture and the ConvexArea in the first ~ 40 s, followed by stabilization (i.e., there is no more liquid to further distribute over the surface). The increases in width and height of the BoundingBox corresponded to the increase in Area size and were similar in both (warp and weft) directions. The MajorAxisLength and MinorAxisLength characteristics also followed a similar pattern. Sample 2, which contained an HPHO warp and an HPHO weft, was a nonwetting woven fabric; the thread combination did not distribute liquid over the surface of the woven fabric (i.e., the time-dependent course of the characteristics is a constant). The resulting values represented the size of the drop that lay on the surface of the woven fabric. As can be seen from the results, this size was constant throughout the measurement because of the nonwetting surface on which it lay.
Sample 3, with an HPHO warp and an HPHI weft, exhibited a time-dependent distribution of moisture only in the direction of the weft, which could be seen in the increments of the Area and width of the BoundingBox and MajorAxisLength, respectively. The height of the BoundingBox and MinorAxisLength remained constant as a function of time. The Eccentricity characteristic was close to 1, which meant that the shape was close to a line segment.
Samples 7, 8, and 9 with HPHO warps and HPHI wefts in different pick ratios showed similar behaviors to that of sample 3, only slightly different depending on the pick ratio.
The present methods for the measurement of wetting are unsuitable for fabrics with a directional distribution of moisture. As mentioned above, existing measurement procedures for measuring the controlled transport of moisture based on the Moisture Management Tester are insufficient. The resulting values of the wetted area do not correspond to the actual wetted area of the fabric. Therefore, in this study, we have proposed a novel methodology to measure and evaluate controlled moisture distribution in woven cotton fabric surfaces. According to the fabric structure and construction, wetting could be isotropic or anisotropic. The construction of woven fabrics where is combination of HPHO warp with a different ratio of HPHO picks () and, shows directional – anisotropic (non-circular) wetting of the fabric surface. The results of the directional distribution of water can be seen from the characteristics describe the Area of the moisture and the ConvexArea including the width and height of the BoundingBox. The construction of woven fabrics where is combination of HPHI warp with a different ratio of HPHI picks () shows approximately circular wetting of the fabric surface (wetting in individual directions is approximately the same).
Figure 8. Results of selected properties for moisture distribution characterization for fabric samples 2, 7, 8, 9 in dependence on time.
Figure 9. Results of selected properties for moisture distribution characterization for fabric samples 1, 4, 5, 6 in dependence on time.
Conclusions
The main goal of this study is to present a methodology for measuring and evaluating controlled moisture distribution in woven cotton fabric surfaces, including a description of the construction of woven fabrics using hydrophobic and hydrophilic cotton yarns.
A methodology was proposed for the evaluation of the controlled distribution of moisture in atypical woven fabric constructions. The object (liquid) was separated from the background (fabrics), and various objects and geometric characteristics depending on time were evaluated. A drop of water with the same volume of water is used to wet all the experimental fabrics, so that the fabrics can be compared from the point of view of water distribution. The liquid is colored with black ink for better subsequent image segmentation. The drop of water in this case does not simulate real wetting when sweating. The surface was wetted with a drop and then the distribution of water on the surface of the fabric was evaluated based on the presented methodology. It is not a perfect process for simulating sweating, but it is sufficient for the verification of the methodology. The results show that the ratio of hydrophobic and hydrophilic threads affects the distribution of fluid (water) on the surface of the woven fabrics. The woven fabrics that contained the HPHI warp and HPHI weft in different pick ratios showed an increase in the Area of the moisture and the ConvexArea in the first ~ 40 s, followed by stabilization (i.e., there is no more liquid to further distribute over the surface). The distribution of hydrophobic threads in the fabric surface reduced wetting in relation to the wetted area and the wetting time. The woven fabrics with an HPHO warp and an HPHI weft (or opposite combinations) exhibited a time-dependent distribution of moisture only in one direction of the weft (or warp in the opposite case), which could be seen in the increment of the Area and width of the BoundingBox and MajorAxisLength, respectively. The height of the BoundingBox and MinorAxisLength remained constant as a function of time. The Eccentricity characteristic was close to 1, which meant that the shape was almost a line segment. The proposed methodology is the basis for further studies focused on quantitative theory of the in-plane moisture distribution in porous fabrics, for example comparison with the theory based on the Lucas – Washburn equation.
Chemical treatments are always applied on an industrial scale to already-made woven fabrics as the last operation in the production process. The disadvantage of such applied treatments is the identical treatment distribution in all woven fabric areas – that is, the surfaces of the woven fabrics have the same properties. This is considered standard nowadays but is certainly not an optimal use of the possibilities of the woven fabric structure. The typically inappropriate behavior of a “standard” treated fabric affects the behavior of the fabric toward sweat released from the skin. Sweat penetrates the woven fabric, the fibers swell, and the associated “closure” of the structure prevents the further penetration of sweat in the form of vapor and liquid. If the structure is unevenly adjusted in different but sufficiently close places, then breathability and moisture transport through the woven fabric would be improved. A suitable combination of HPHO and HPHI threads in the woven fabric allows sweat (water) to be distributed in a controlled manner, which increases the breathability of the woven fabric structure. The weaving technology creates possibilities to technologically insert different combinations of threads both in the direction of the warp and the weft.
Highlights
Novel methodology to measure and evaluate controlled moisture distribution in woven cotton fabric using hydrophobic and hydrophilic cotton yarns in warp and weft directions.
Controlled moisture distribution in woven cotton fabric surfaces.
Isotropic or anisotropic wetting of woven cotton fabric surfaces.
Construction of woven fabrics using hydrophobic and hydrophilic cotton yarns in warp and weft directions.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Senta Müllerová for the preparation of the scanning electron microscopy images.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Funding
References
- Dolez, P. I., M. A. Arfaoui, M. Dubé, and D. É. 2017. Hydrophobic treatments for natural fibers based on metal oxide nanoparticles and fatty acids. Procedia Engineering 200:81–16. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.013.
- Hu, J. Y., Y. Li, K. W. Yeung, A. S. W. Wong, and W. L. Xu. 2005. Moisture management tester: A method to characterize fabric liquid moisture management properties. Textile Research Journal 75:57–62. doi:10.1177/004051750507500111.
- Kick, T., T. Grethe, and B. Mahltig. 2017. A natural based method for hydrophobic treatment of natural fiber material. Acta Chimica Slovenica 64 (2):373–80. doi:10.17344/acsi.2017.3232.
- Lee, Y., D. Byun, S. B. Q. Tran, S. Kim, B. Park, and S. Lee 2008. Oxygen plasma treated super-hydrophobic nozzle for electro-spray device. Nsti Nanotech, Technical Proceedings: Materials, Fabrication, Particles, and Characterization, Boston, June 1-5, 2008. p. 475–78.
- Li, W., W. Xu, W. Cui, and X. Wang. 2008. A novel method to analyze the moisture liberation of textile fabrics. Fibers and Polymers 9 (3):312–16. doi:10.1007/s12221-008-0050-0.
- Matusiak, M. 2019. Moisture management properties of seersucker woven fabrics of different structure. Fibers & Textiles in Eastern Europe 27:43–50. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0013.0741.
- Moller, E. B. 2003. Hydrophobic treatments - effect on wetting and soiling of surfaces. Research in Building Physics. Proceedings conference paper, p. 291–300, Antwerp, Belgium, September 14-18.
- Park, Y. 2016. Development of moisture transition ability on porous complex structured woven fabric with convergence of pattern, porosity, and plasma technology. Fibers and Polymers 17 (12):2027–34. doi:10.1007/s12221-016-6724-0.
- Park, H. Y., B. J. Kang, D. Lee, and J. H. Oh. 2013. Control of surface wettability for inkjet printing by combining hydrophobic coating and plasma treatment. Thin Solid Films 546:162–66. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2013.03.067.
- Ren, H. H., Q. W. Song, and J. W. Xing 2013. Study on hydrophobic treatment of nano-TiO2. Textile bioengineering & informatics society. Textile Bioengineering and Informatics Symposium Proceedings Vol 1-3. p. 46–52, Xian Polytechn Univ, Xian, PEOPLES R CHINA, September 26-28.
- Roe, B., R. Kotek, and X. Zhang. 2012. Durable hydrophobic cotton surfaces prepared using silica nanoparticles and multifunctional silanes. The Journal of the Textile Institute 103 (4):385–93. doi:10.1080/00405000.2011.580540.
- Schoenfisch, D., M. Goeddel, J. Blinn, C. Heyde, H. Schlarb, W. Deferme, and A. Picard. 2019. New type of thermal moisture sensor for in-textile measurements. Physica Status Solidi A-Applications and Materials Science 216:1800765. doi:10.1002/pssa.201800765.
- Sfameni, S., T. Lawnick, G. Rando, A. Visco, T. Textor, and M. R. Plutino. 2022. Functional Silane-based nanohybrid materials for the development of hydrophobic and water-based stain resistant cotton fabrics coatings. Nanomaterials 12 (19):3404. doi:10.3390/nano12193404.
- Sirkova, B. K., and E. Mouckova. 2018. Analysis possibilities of controlled transport of moisture in woven fabrics. AUTEX Research Journal 18 (4):385–91. doi:10.1515/aut-2018-0008.
- Tsoi, W. Y., C. W. Kan, and C. W. Yuen. 2011. Using ageing effect for HPHO modification of cotton fabric with atmospheric pressure plasma. BioResources 6:3424–39. doi:10.15376/biores.6.3.3424-3439.
- Zhong, Y., and A. N. Netravali. 2016. “Green” surface treatment for water-repellent cotton fabrics. Surface Innovations 4:3–13. doi:10.1680/jsuin.15.00022.
- Zhu, C., and M. Takatera. 2014. A new thermocouple technique for the precise measurement of in-plane capillary water flow within fabrics. Textile Research Journal 84 (5):513–26. doi:10.1177/0040517513503729.