Banana Pseudostem: An Undiscovered Fiber Enriched Sustainable Functional Food

ABSTRACT

As a tropical fruit, the banana is one of the favorite fruits, and the banana herb only bears fruit once in its lifespan; it is chopped off after harvesting, and only 40% of it is adequately utilized, leaving the remaining 60% as trash rich in cellulose, hemicellulose, and natural fibers. The pseudostem accounts for 75% of the waste, with the rest accounting for 25%. The purpose of this paper is to raise important awareness about the bioactive chemicals found in banana pseudostems hence they can be considered as sustainable foods and their applications as culinary raw materials and in other sectors. Even though bulk waste is biodegradable, it causes many problems in our environment, so sustainable waste usage with proper management and utilization of the residues can not only help in the utilization of the bioactive and nutrient compounds present but also increase the economic and environmental issues associated with the problem. The banana pseudostem is used in various businesses as culinary ingredients, fibers, and hazardous removers. Even when used for heavy metal treatment in wastewater, the fiber in it is strong enough to manufacture cardboard and food packaging materials. Some pseudostem types can even be extracted for pectin and used as food additives. The powdered pseudostem is used to boost the nutritional content of numerous recipes. In summary, the banana pseudostem can be divided into two first the central core part that can be used as food raw material and other outer sheaths in various different industries.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

摘要

作为热带水果，香蕉是人们最喜欢的水果之一，香蕉草本植物一生只结一次果; 收获后将其切碎，只有40%得到充分利用，剩下的60%作为富含纤维素、半纤维素和天然纤维的垃圾. 伪茎占废物的75%，其余占25%. 本文的目的是提高人们对香蕉假茎中发现的生物活性化学物质的重要认识，因此它可以被视为一种可持续食品及其作为烹饪原料和其他部门的应用. 尽管散装废物是可生物降解的，但它会给我们的环境带来许多问题，因此，可持续的废物利用以及对残留物的适当管理和利用，不仅有助于利用现有的生物活性和营养化合物，而且还会增加与该问题相关的经济和环境问题. 香蕉假茎在各种企业中被用作烹饪配料、纤维和有害物质去除剂. 即使用于废水中的重金属处理，其中的纤维也足够坚固，可以制造纸板和食品包装材料. 一些假茎类型甚至可以提取果胶并用作食品添加剂. 粉末状的假茎被用来提高许多食谱的营养含量. 综上所述，香蕉假茎可分为两类，一类是中心核部分，可作为食品原料，另一类是不同行业的外鞘.

KEYWORDS:

• Banana waste-loss
• sustainable usage
• pseudostem
• fiber
• therapeutic value
• climate change

关键词:

• 香蕉废弃物损失
• 可持续使用
• 假茎
• 纤维
• 治疗价值
• 气候变化

Introduction

To address the interlocking challenges of growing pressure and competition for renewable resources, chronic malnutrition, rural poverty, increased power and concentration of the food and agriculture industries, growing consequences of climate change, and alarming losses of biodiversity, a profound transformation is required at multiple scales. The Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG2), which aims to “end hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030,” requires a significant shift in the way food is produced, processed, transported, and distributed. However, there is less consensus on how to bring about this change (FAO 2018; HLPE 2019; IPCC 2019). There are a number of sustainable foods like mushrooms, pulses, seaweed, cereals and grains, organic fruits, and vegetables (Herrero et al. 2020). Not only is a plant-based diet well-balanced, but it is also beneficial for the primary prevention of numerous health disorders. On the other hand, it can also be utilized as a supplemental treatment for long-term conditions like heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and numerous other medical conditions (Polyak et al. 2023). Finding new, sustainable food sources is urgently needed. Banana pseudostem is one such nutrient-dense, high-fiber food that is underutilized and typically thrown away as waste (Padam et al. 2014).

Banana plants are tall herbs belonging to the Musa genus of the family Musaceae. This major commercial fruit crop is predominantly grown in subtropical and tropical regions. Banana is the second-largest cash crop in the world, with more than 100 million tonnes of production annually. The total amount of bananas produced globally in 2021 was 125 million tonnes of which India contributes predominantly over 30,000 tonnes annually, making it the top producer (Pradhan and Deo 2019). Bananas and plantains are the fourth-largest staple crop in the world and are essential to maintaining food and nutritional security for over 400 million people all over the world (Guinness World Records 2022; Banana Link 2022). Approximately 60% of the banana biomass are wasted after harvest and post-processing accounting to 114.08 million metric tonnes globally (Alzate et al., 2021). Among all the banana species around the world, the main edible species are Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana predominantly for its fruit (Brown et al. 2017; Khoozani, Birch, and Bekhit 2019). However, other morphological parts (blossoms, roots, sap, leaves, and pseudostems) have been proven to contain numerous therapeutic and nutritional benefits (Gupta et al. 2022). Currently, the Musa species have been extensively studied for their anthelmintic, hypolipidemic, immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, antiulcerogenic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and leishmanicidal properties for possible applications in the pharmacological field (Mathew and Negi 2017, Bhaskar et al., 2012). Interestingly, in the food industry, potent bioactive compounds present in banana biowastes (leaves, pseudostems, fruit peels, and pith) are recycled and used as coloring agents, livestock feed, flavoring agents, and nutraceutical agents (Bhavani et al. 2023; Padam et al. 2014).

Post harvesting, the resultant agro biowaste (leaves and pseudo-stems) is usually burned or released into the surroundings (Al-Mqbali and Hossain 2019; Gupta et al. 2019) (Figure 1). In addition to the 100 kg of fruits that are rejected, it has been stated that for every tonne of banana fruit harvested, around 3 tonnes of pseudostem, 150 kg of rachis, and 480 kg of leaves are discarded eventually causing environmental hazards (Subagyo and Chafidz, 2018). However, the discarded biomass is an abundant source of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. The effect and quantity of these phytocompounds found in the pseudostem vary according to age, variety, and genotype. Furthermore, the presence of advantageous bioactive compounds needed in the human diet like alkaloids, amino acids (L-tryptophan, phenylalanine, L-lysine, and L-glutamic acid), derivatives of lipids (α-linolenic acid and palmitoleic acid), flavonoids, nucleotides (guanosine, adenine) and other organic acids are also seen (Deng et al. 2020). It has a lot of minerals, including nutrients such as fiber, potassium, and vitamin B6, which can support detoxification and body weight management (Balda et al. 2021). Owing to the high medicinal properties of such biomolecules, it is highly recommended by Ayurveda and Unani medical systems due to its effect on infectious and degenerative diseases, however, current estimates suggest that only 2% are being utilized. Fresh juice made from the banana pseudostem is suggested for consumption to cleanse and detox the body and also helps to prevent kidney stones, epilepsy, dysentery, and diarrhea (Qamar and Shaikh 2018). Currently, banana pseudostem has several uses as a food raw material and in other industries translating into the direct impact under Sustainable Development Goal 13. The present review discusses the various properties of banana pseudostem, processing methods, and their applications in the nutritional and industrial sectors. There are several different bioactive components present in it and its importance.

Figure 1. Banana pseudostem inner core

Structure and nutrition

When the banana plant reaches its maximum height, the bottom portion of the midrib is modified, thickening the lower leaf sheaths, which are then used to make the banana plant’s pseudostem. According to reports, banana pseudostems are red, reddish-green, and yellowish in color (Sumardi and Wulandari 2010). The banana pseudo-stem (BPS), which carries fruits, flowers, and leaves, can reach heights of 6–7.6 m. They are often used for the production of sustainable packaging with these plant pieces will help cut down on emissions caused by banana plant waste (Othman et al., 2020). The nutritional content of the banana pseudostem is discussed in Table 1. More research is needed to find and create more environmentally friendly, biodegradable materials and nanoparticles that do not affect the atmosphere (Mostafa 2021). The aerial stem known as a banana pseudostem (BPS) is actively growing and features densely clustered leaf sheaths. From the roots to the leaves, and ultimately to the banana fruit bunch, it acts as a vascular link for the movement of water and nutrients. In India, it is frequently used as a vegetable for culinary uses. Ash from the banana pseudostem had 33.4%, 7.5%, 4.34%, 2.7%, and 2.2% of potassium, calcium, manganese, silicon, and phosphorus, respectively (Cordeiro et al. 2004). It is discovered that banana pseudostem has many bioactive compounds like vitamins ethyl 6-hydrazinonicotinate, and sulfur compounds like Sinalexin (Islam et al. 2022) and it is given in Table 2.

Table 1. Nutritional composition of banana pseudostem.

Nutritional component	(%)	Method	Reference
Moisture	12.30	Vacuum oven method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Ash	4.93	Basic ash method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Fat	0.98	Soxhlet method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Total carbohydrate	46.58	-	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Starch	21.06	α-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) extraction method	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Energy	64.40	-	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Protein	7.34	Kjeldahl method	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Total dietary fiber	61.14	Enzymatic-gravimetric method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Insoluble dietary fiber	59.10	Enzymatic-gravimetric method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Soluble dietary fiber	02.04	Enzymatic-gravimetric method	AACC (2000); Ramu et al.,(2017)
Lignin	7.86	Gravimetric method	Noor et al. (2011); Ramu et al., (2017); AACC (2000)
Macro elements	(mg/g)
Sodium	0.02	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Potassium	10.63	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Calcium	4.01	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Microelements	(ppm)
Iron	30.65	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Copper	0.02	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Zinc	16.60	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)
Lead	0.15	Plasma atomic emission spectrometry	AOAC (2000); Ramu et al., (2017)

Table 2. A list of compounds and their functions present in banana pseudostem.

Class of compounds	Name of compound	Functions	References
Amino acid	Prolamine	Antimicrobial properties along with silica hybrid coating used in food packaging	Trodtfeld et al. (2022)
	Asparaginyl-hydroxyproline	Helps in building strong matrix tissues that separate the epithelium layer from another tissue layer beneath it and also blocks or delays the apoptosis in neutrophils	Wu et al. (2019), Phang et al. (2010)
	Alanyl tryptophan	Which helps in the copper transport	Li et al. (2020)
	2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid	It can prevent renal fibrosis and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis	Widmeyer et al. (2019)
Phenolic group
	Cinnamic acid	It can be used for treating prostate and breast cancer.	Imai et al. (2019)
	Gingerol	Along with paclitaxel prevents human breast adenocarcinoma and also the number of neutrophils thereby increasing the immune responses	Wala et al. (2022) Andersen et al. (2023)
	4-aminobenzoic acid	Its derivatives can convert the folate precursor into antimicrobial components.	Krátký et al. (2019)
	Trimethylgallic acid	Anticancer properties	Saxena et al. (2008)
	2-oxo-4-methylthiobutanoic acid	Used in liver transplanting patients for finding the reoccurrence.	Lu et al. (2019)
	Piscidic acid	Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity	Matias et al. (2014)
	Abscisic acid	Which can stimulate many cells like insulin-releasing pancreatic β cells, innate immune cells, hematopoietic stem cells, and mesenchymal in the human body	Malara et al. (2017)
	Itaconic acid	Can influence mitochondrial dehydehydrogenaseivity and also bacterial inflammation due to the same and along with the ions of zinc, silver, and copper can treat the infections.	Fedotcheva and Beloborodova (2022) Tomić and Vuković (2022)
	Fumaric acid	The silver nanoparticle with fumaric acid has antibacterial activity and is used the in pharmaceutical industry.	Basha et al. (2019)
Carbohydrates Alkaloidal	Sucrose	It helps to maintain the intestinal microbes and helps in reducing cartilage disintegration.	Tauzin et al. (2019) Khan et al., 2017
	d-glucose	Helps in the production of many hormones like insulin etc.	Verri et al. (2001)
	Usambarensine	Have anticancer properties and even prevention drugs can be prepared	Isah (2016) Unnisa and Chettupalli (2022)

Table 3. Food by products with bioactive compounds present.

Food By products	Class of bioactive substances	Major compounds	References
Berries Press Residue (blueberries, lingonberries, bilberries)	Anthocyanins	Malvidin, Cyanidin, Petunidin, Delphinidin	Klavins et al. (2018)
	Flavanols	Rutin, Kaempferol, Laricitrin, Quercetin, Myricitin
Banana Peel	Phenolic acids	Ferulic acid, Sinapic acids, p-Coumaric acid, Caffeic acid	Vu et al. (2018)
	Catechins	Epicatechin, Catechin, Gallocatechin
Broccoli leaves	Glucosinolates	Neoglucobrassin, 4-Methoxy-glucobrassicin	Ares et al. (2015)
	Flavonoids	Quercetin, Kaempferol
Beetroot Pomace	Phenolic acids	Ferulic acid, Caffeic acid, p-Hydroxybenzoic acid, Vanillic acid, Protocatechuic acid	Vulić et al. (2014)
	Flavonoids	Catechin, Epicatechin
	Betalains	Betaxanthins, Betacyanins (isobetanin and betanin)
Banana pseudostem	Amino acid	Alanyl tryptophan, Asparaginyl-hydroxyproline, Prolamine	Gupta et al., (2022)
	Phenolic group	Piscidic acid, 2-oxo-4-methylthiobutanoic acid, Trimethylgallic acid, Gingerol, Cinnamic acid
	Alkaloidal	Usambarensine

There are a number of sustainable foods that are considered as food by products which are rich in bioactive compounds and it is given in Table 3. Different starch features, such as their morphological and thermal properties, are displayed from the extracts of banana pseudostem. Because it is obtained from a banana pseudostem it has a different composition and a unique starch shape. Higher yield and lower gelatinization temperature are characteristics of OPS starch. Based on the results of this study’s analysis of the qualities of banana pseudostem starch, additional research must be done to determine its best uses. The starch content was discovered to be 10.35 g, 0.76 g, 6.86 g, 0.04 g, and 11.97 g, 0.52 g in the whole part of the pseudostem (WPS), the inner part of the pseudostem (IPS), and the outer part of the pseudostem (OPS), respectively (Ali et al. 2021). It has been demonstrated that edible starch made from banana pseudostem pith and green banana culling has a higher resilience to heating and amylase action than commercial maize starch (Z. Li et al. 2018). Several food products are prepared from the banana pseudostem and are given in Table 4

Table 4. Banana pseudostem food products and preparation methods.

Food product	Procedure of preparation	Reference
Squash	The squash is prepared in the normal method, but the banana pseudostem extract is used instead of water here. It can be successfully preserved with 350 ppm of KMS and citric acid for 6 months in Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) bottle 200 ml at 20°C − 35°C considered room temperature. The TSS, acidity, and organoleptic evaluation is done in 0, 2, 4, and 6 months. It is found that the best-blended squash with consistent nutritional value can be made with 75% banana pseudostem sap, 10% mango pulp, 10% papaya pulp, and 5% aloe vera. The use of banana pseudostem sap/juice lowers production costs and improves the nutritional value of the finished product. Fruit juice and pulp blending produced squash with good sensory and nutritive qualities. Food processors might commercially explore the created technique to produce high-quality blended squash. Consequently, it will be useful for the profitable use of banana farming	Brunda (2023)
Bread	The peeled banana pseudostem is rinsed with normal water then with distilled water and diced and boiled in water for 30 minutes. It is then dried in a ventilated dryer at 60°C for 24 hr blended into powder and sieved of size 355 µm. This banana pseudostem flour replaces the normal wheat flour in bread making in 10 g/100 g proportion and xanthan gum, Carboxymethylcellulose, salt, sugar, milk powder, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (instant yeast) are added and then baked at 180°C for 20 minutes. Its analysis is done like moisture, protein, crude fat, crude fiber, antioxidant, total phenolic content, weight, color, volume, specific volume, and sensory. The result showed that a 10% substitution of banana pseudostem flour with wheat flour can improve the nutritive as well as organoleptic properties of bread	Ho et al. (2013)
Cookies	The banana pseudostem central core flour is incorporated into normal refined and wheat flour of cookies at different percentages like 5, 10 and 15. then it is baked and proximate, physical, and sensory analysis is done. It is found that the acceptance of 10 and 15% of banana pseudostem central core flour is high	Ambrose and Lekshman (2016)
Ready-to-drink juice	The banana pseudostem of species like Vayal vazhai and Ottu vazhai is collected. It is cleaned and weighed into pieces of 1 kg, sliced and the fiber is removed diced, and soaked in 2% citric acid solution for 10 minutes to prevent the unwanted browning reaction. it is steam blanched for 3 minutes at 65°C then mechanically crushed and filtered using muslin cloth. the obtained juice is mixed with water in a ratio of 3:1. In this study natural flavors like mint and lemon are used. before the addition of BPS juice to the flavors and sugar syrup it is pasteurized at 72–80°C then cooled and other ingredients like KMS 70 ppm, CMS .1%, and the rest is added and bottled in a sterile state crocked heated up to 72–80°C for 20 minutes. It is found that the lemon-flavored banana pseudostem juice is best in both nutritive and organoleptic ways have a shelf life of 45 days	Buvaneshwari et al. (2020)
Cutlets	The banana pseudostem flour along with the vegetables like potato, onion, salt, and other spices in which the BPS is added in different proportions, and the cutlet is prepared. It is found that 10% BPS flour has the best physiochemical and sensory value also it has more nutritive value compared to the normal one	Raju et al. (2019)
Juice	The low pH, high nutritional value, and low sugar content of the banana stem juice, when combined with sucralose, sorbitol, and stevia, can likely replace the sugary and nutritionally deficient beverage that is now on the market. The pseudostem of jackfruit banana stems of species Musa x paradisiaca, Musa acuminate, and Musa x paradisiaca of horn banana are collected then weighed 1 kg, and washed thoroughly then the outer sheaths are removed the inner core part is taken. The inner core part is chopped and blended the stem extract is filtered with a muslin cloth. Since there is a need for sweet taste sweeteners like sorbitol, stevia, and sucralose are added along with food additives like guar gum as thickeners, sodium benzoate as preservatives, and citric acid as acidulant is added.	Zaini (2022)
Fortified pseudostem juice powder	When horse gram and milk are added to powdered banana pseudostem juice, it is discovered that the beverage’s overall mineral content is decreased, with calcium making up 2.88% and potassium 1.18%.	Saranya et al., 2017
Isotonic drink	An isotonic drink made of banana pseudostem, mint leaves, and lemon grass has a low protein content, a high calcium content, and may be kept fresh in the refrigerator for up to two weeks.	Swarnalakshmi et al., 2019

Table 5. The uses of banana pseudostem.

Use of pseudostem	How it is used	Reference
Wastewater treatment	The biochar is obtained from the biomass of banana crop especially the pseudostem’s outer surface with the process of co-precipitation we get nanoparticle which is highly magnetic CoFe₂O₄ that can be used in sewage water treatment to remove the pharmaceutical waste, especially the compound amoxicillin	Hanane et al., 2021
Textile industry	The fiber of banana pseudostem is isolated and used for the processing of curtains, cloth fiber, and cushion cover	Vigneswaran et al. (2015)
Dye removing	Along with the acrylamide and sodium acrylate, the banana pseudostem a superabsorbent is made which easily removes the adhesive dyes both cationic and anionic.	Bello et al. (2018)
Helps in crossbreeding in pig farming	It is observed by replacing 20% of the maize with banana pseudostem the crossbreeding of the pig is more cost-effective and nutritive.	Baruah et al., 2022
Cellulose nanocrystals from banana pseudostem	The nanocrystals with acid hydrolysis made from banana pseudostem have lower thermal stability and higher crystallinity compared to normal banana fibers	Zope et al. (2022)
Inhibit α-glucosidase	In silico model is proved that the flavonoids present in banana pseudostem and flower can inhibit α-glucosidase.	Patil et al. (2022)
Biofertilizer	Bio- enrich organic bio-fertilizer is made with multiple phytohormones which increase the plant growth	Vaidya et al. (2022)
Biofuel	Banana pseudostem ash is used to prepare biodiesel and hence sustainable development is done.	Daimary et al. (2023)
Arsenic removal	The banana pseudostem is used as a substrate for microalgae and its films are good at the removal of arsenic which is a carcinogen.	Kumar et al., (2022)

Table 6. Antidiabetic components present in natural and greenhouse-grown banana.

Sample	Type of cultivation	Bioactive compounds present	Functions	Reference
Vietnamese	Naturally grown	Gallic Acid	Inhibits prostate cancer	Liu et al. (2011)
		Rutin	Anti-Alzheimer’s properties along with antiaging properties	Bermejo-Bescós et al. (2023)
		Catechin	Prevent chronic kidney disorders	Bao et al. (2020)
		Epicatechin	Helps in maintaining skeletal muscles	Ramirez-Sanchez et al. (2012)
	Greenhouse	Nicotinflorin	In Mexican traditional medicine is used to treat dysentery and diarrhea.	Calzada et al. (2017)
	Both natural and greenhouse	Lupeol	Have many properties like preventing cardiovascular disease, kidney diseases, wound healing, etc.	Siddique and Saleem (2011).
		Vanillic acid	Antioxidant, immuno-stimulating, cardioprotective	Tai et al. (2012) Sharma et al. (2020)
		Ferulic acid	Anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, antimicrobial	Ou and Kwok (2004)
		Chlorogenic acid	Anti-obesity, anti-hypertension, hepatoprotective	Naveed et al. (2018)

Market samples were gathered and examined for thiamethoxam residues after traces were found in the treated stem. In each of the five stem samples examined, no remnants were found. Thiamethoxam applied topically at a rate of 140 g ai ha −1 in an okra research produced residue of less than 0.02 ppm LOD (Suganthi et al., 2018). For 84 days, the eight pesticide residues found in banana homogenate – thiabendazole (TZ), carbofuran (CB), triadimenol (TN), methomyl (MT), bifenthrin (BF), diazinon (DZ), triflumuron (TF), and triazophos (TP) – were effectively studied and discovered that the residuals are smaller than the predetermined boundaries (Harmoko et al., 2023).

Food products

There are several food products made from the banana pseudostem since it has a high content of bioactive components. The core, an edible, fiber-rich component of the pseudo-stem that can be eaten after boiling and seasoning with spices or used to make sweets and pickles, is located inside the pseudo-stem’s center (Cpambrose, Lakshman, and Naik 2016). The banana pseudostem powder is used to incorporate into many food products as a nutritive ingredient (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Banana pseudostem-based food products.

Other uses

In addition to the food business, the banana pseudostem is utilized in the manufacturing of paper, biofertilizers, wastewater treatment, and tea bags (Tripathi et al. 2019). For ruminants, such as cattle, goats, sheep, and buffalo, which are also known as ruminants, the parts of the banana plant that have been harvested, such as steam, rejected fruits, leaves, and so on, can be used as feed. However, because the banana feed contains a high amount of tannin and moisture, it is proven that anaerobic fermentation of the feed along with the addition of sulfur (S), nitrogen (N), and other nutrients will increase the feed’s value and quality (Rochana et al. 2017). There are several other uses of banana pseudostem than being a food raw material and is discussed in Table 5.

The extraction procedure affects fiber quantity and quality. Exploiting banana fiber for diverse industrial uses opens up new avenues for future research by both academics and industries. The key parameters influencing banana fiber’s applicability for specific applications are its fiber content and strength qualities. Banana fiber is an excellent substitute for the pulp and paper industry, which is regarded as one of the most polluting due to its high cellulose and low lignin content. Because of its exceptional absorption and tensile properties, banana fiber has a lot of potential as a key component in the creation of sanitary pads (Balda et al. 2021). Banana pseudostem also has uses in the textile industry as well as in the manufacturing of composites (Akinyemi and Dai 2020).

In Japan, banana fiber was used to make currency note paper since it is the strongest natural fiber that can be extracted (Meena, Deshmukh, and Giri 2018). The sheath of the banana pseudostem is fed into the machine’s mouthpiece, moved to the feeding roller, crushed, beat with the aid of a rotating drum, then degummed, fiber washed, and dried. This process is 25 times faster than the standard manual extraction method. Additionally, it can be seen that mechanically removed fiber has lower elongation and tensile strength than biologically extracted fiber (Mumthas, Wickramasinghe, and Gunasekera 2019). The banana pseudostem is used to remove a textile dye called BF-5 G blue which is very difficult to handle (Rigueto et al. 2021). The fibers present in the banana pseudostem are protected by non-cellulose which helps them to be used for the paper and pulping industry. It has a variety of holocellulose present in it (Li et al. 2010) (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Uses of banana pseudostem fiber

Therapeutic value

The banana pseudo-stem sap has the potential to be a good source of bioactive chemicals with a variety of pharmacologically significant qualities beyond antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activities, according to the results of the current study. The presence of epimedin A, dihydrorescinnamine, and rescinnamine derivatives may be responsible for these bioactive qualities. With the potential for their use in herbal cosmeceutical and nutraceutical formulations, our study serves as a model for opening up metabolomic studies of banana sap in its non-oxidized state and valorizing what is now considered a waste product (Gupta et al. 2022). The antimicrobial and antibacterial activities of banana pseudostem are caused by the presence of (+) Catechin, Cinnamic acid, and Caffeic acid, whereas Protocatechuic acid and Lupeol exhibit antibacterial effects (Saravanan and Aradhya 2011). Antioxidants such as gentisic acid, catechin, ferulic acid, and protocatechuic acid are present in pseudostem juice. As a result, it has the power to treat gallbladder stone development and problems in the urinary system. It aids in dissolving the calcium oxalate that leads to kidney stones (Sharma et al. 2017). Banana sap extract (Musa paradisiaca var. sapientum) has a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of 1.563% and a Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of 3.125% against E. faecalis bacteria demonstrates antibacterial effectiveness (Budi, Juliastuti, and Christy 2020). Banana stem sap contains antimicrobial active ingredients in the form of tannins 4.38%, flavonoids up to 8.18%, and saponins 6.73% (Kapadia, Pudakalkatti, and Shivanaikar 2015).

It was proven that the naturally grown banana plant has a more bioactive antidiabetic content in comparison to greenhouse-grown bananas and this research emphasizes how much it is true while checking the 17 compounds only 9 were found in the greenhouse-grown banana, whereas 12 were found in the naturally grown one. It also shows, however, that pseudostem juice from both natural and greenhouse-grown can inhibit α-glucosidase and delay carbohydrate digestion and discussed in Table 6. By that, the chance of hyperglycemia is reduced (Nguyen et al. 2017).

The potential of extracts from various banana plant sections to inhibit enzymes like glucosidase and amylase, which is in charge of the digestion of carbohydrates, has drawn attention to the effects of these extracts on type I and type II diabetes mellitus over the past 10 years (Silva et al. 2016). The phytochemicals present in the banana pseudostem and the silver nanoparticles made by these, especially with phenols, flavonoids, tannins, etc. are proven to prevent cancer and also show that it has antimicrobial activities (Kumari et al. 2021).

Conclusion

The banana pseudostem which is usually considered as a waste also has a wide variety of industrial applications. The central inner core is used as a raw material in different regions like South India, Malaysia, etc. the outer and inner sheaths are used for the extraction of fiber which is the best fiber extracted naturally. There are a number of long-stored food products developed containing potent bioactive properties like pickles, squash, drink, and so on giving a high therapeutic value to the functional food. There are several ways in which the banana pseudostem can be used as a substrate for mushroom and microalgae growth. It is also used as a biofuel in the production of biodiesel and also as a biofertilizer. It is good for the removal of dyes. It is widely used in wastewater treatment in different forms including the treatment of pharmaceutical waste and arsenic waste. It can be used as cattle feed with or without treatment. It is used in the paper industry, food packing industry and even in the textile industry along with making handicrafts. We have biowaste material rich in the property so must use it wisely to avoid the wastage and the environmental issues that create and go hand in hand with sustainable development which is a need of the era.

Highlights

• Banana pseudostem is a food with great nutritional value and potential health benefits.

• Banana pseudostem is exceptionally nutrient-dense and can offer a range of positive health effects.

• its richness in fiber, the banana pseudostem can be an excellent addition to the diet of health-conscious individuals.

• Emphasizing the fiber content highlights its potential to support digestive health, promoting regular bowel movements and aiding in digestion.

• Encouraging the consumption of the pseudostem could promote a more sustainable use of the entire banana plant, reducing waste and increasing its overall value.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).