Physical Properties of Water Hyacinth, Polyester, and Cotton Blended Spun Yarn: A Blend Ratio Study

ABSTRACT

The goal of the study is to investigate the ideal mix ratio for yarn spinning in the production of industrial textiles, taking into account the physical properties of water-hyacinth-based fabric and yarn. Cotton, polyester, and water hyacinth had a weft yarn mix ratio of 20:25:55. The completed piece demonstrates the unique dark colour and fibre properties of the Water Hyacinth yarn. There are two distinct construction types in the cloth. In plain weaving, ply yarn is used to create the woven structure by reinforcing the weft strand structure. The unique twill fabric was developed to take the place of several natural fabric types that are now available on the market. The warp-to-weft thread ratio is tightly displayed.

摘要

该研究的目的是研究工业纺织品生产中纱线纺纱的理想混合比，同时考虑水葫芦基织物和纱线的物理特性。棉、涤、水葫芦的纬纱混合比为20:25:55。成品展示了水葫芦纱线独特的深色和纤维特性。布料有两种不同的结构类型。在平纹编织中，股线用于通过增强纬纱结构来形成编织结构。这种独特的斜纹织物是为了取代目前市场上的几种天然织物类型而开发的。经纬比紧密显示。

KEYWORDS:

• Environment
• fabric
• natural fiber
• water hyacinth
• yarn

关键词:

• 环境
• 织物
• 天然纤维
• 水葫芦
• 纱线

Introduction

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a nuisance and a fast-growing plant (Ajithram, Jappes, and Brintha 2021; Dechassa 2020), and it is one of the 10 most invasive vegetation in the world (Cheng et al. 2014). It inhabits tropical and subtropical zones (Xu et al. 2016). Under favorable environmental conditions (Ruan et al. 2016), it spreads extensively in the river (Abdel-Fattah and Abdel-Naby 2012; Mahardika, Abral, and Amelia 2023). It forms dense, impenetrable mats on the surface of the water and has other distinct effects, such as obstructing irrigation channels and rivers (Istirokhatun et al. 2015).

Despite its rapid development, the use of Water Hyacinth as a production material is still relatively limited. Due to its rapid reproduction rate, Water Hyacinth has become a significant invasive contaminant in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Dass and Chellamuthu 2022; Lin et al. 2015). The Water Hyacinth is a fast-growing plant that has caused extensive depletion of nutrients and dissolved oxygen, resulting in the disappearance of numerous aquatic water bodies and a decline in water quality (Das et al. 2016). The need for environmentally friendly materials and processes has prompted an intensification of research on materials derived from renewable sources (Henrique et al. 2013; Owen, Achukwu, and Akil 2022).

Mochochoko et al. (2013) and Arivendan et al. (2022) report that enormous sums of money are spent globally to eradicate this vegetation by chemical, biological, and mechanical means. They do not provide long-term, sustainable control, and they contribute to water pollution (Jian-Jun, Yi, and Qi-Jia 2006). An attempt has been made to transform the plant into a commercially valuable material, thereby transforming the wildflower into an economic plant capable of generating income for the rural population and reducing water pollution. Due to the low production costs and the use of artisanal techniques passed down through generations, Water Hyacinth products have generated substantial profits for local entrepreneurs. The study of a textile’s physical properties examines a variety of characteristics, such as tear resistance, tensile force resistance, explosive strength resistance, weight, thickness, air permeability, and so on.

The fabric’s physical properties before actual usage is crucial because it allows for further improvements, making the material more practical for everyday use. The test also helps the fabric fulfill the consumers’ demands for high-quality textile products and minimizes possible risks, ultimately protecting the benefits of both the manufacturers and consumers (Khongyai 2011). These physical properties can become selling points for Water Hyacinth products, offering them a greater competitive edge in the market and reinforcing consumers’ confidence in the material and the products (Mahardika, Abral, and Amelia 2023; Ramadani et al. 2020). The physical properties also stimulate entrepreneurs to improve the quality of the products further.

Therefore, The use of Water Hyacinth fiber an important resource for increasing the value of surplus weeds. The physical property test is necessary for every new fabric type, allowing it to deliver suitable usability and important to examine the correct blend ratio for yarn spinning in industrial textile manufacturing. The process of the test begins with spinning yarn into fibers. These fibers contain unique physical characteristics, such as being lightweight and effective humidity absorbers. The test is a part of Water Hyacinth fiber development at the industrial scale, which hopes to reduce natural fiber imports. The fibers are later turned into yarns and fabrics, which also receive another physical property test (Ilyas et al. 2021).

The final product can generate many benefits for the community as new developments in manufacturing technologies can further expand the use of Water Hyacinth yarns and fabrics among new entrepreneurs in the fashion industry with clothing products using this locally produced, environmentally friendly natural material. The study investigated the physical properties of a blend of Water Hyacinth, polyester, and cotton spun yarns, focusing on blend ratios. Then, the new product will contribute to the country’s sustainable development while fulfilling the demands of the textile market.

Materials and methods

Materials

The aquatic weed plant Water Hyacinth was used as a primary source in the study (Sundari and Ramesh 2012). Select the Water Hyacinth with an approximate length of 50 centimeters. Cut the roots and leaves, leaving only the trunks. Normally, it takes 12–15 plants to attain one kilogram of trunks and branches. The material is source from local waterways in Pathumthani, Thailand. And polyester and cotton fibers are obtained from fibers from industrial plants.

The physical properties of raw Water Hyacinth showed fibers of 30–50 cm in length and 50 µm in diameter (Chunchiyakarn, Chonsakorn, and Momgkholrattanasit 2018), polyester fiber of 3.8 cm in length and 10 µm in diameter, and cotton fiber of 1–6.5 cm in length and 11–22 µm in diameter, as shown in Table 1. That has intrigued significant interest due to their unique characteristics such as high tensile strength and excellent mechanical properties (Soni, Hassana, and Mahmoud 2015).

Table 1. The physical properties of raw water hyacinth, cotton, and polyester fibers.

Type fiber	Property	Result
Water Hyacinth	Length	30–50 cm
	Diameter	50 µm
Polyester	Length	3.8 cm
	Diameter	10 µm
Cotton	Length	1–6.5 cm
	Diameter	11–22 µm

The state of the raw material will also affect the number and quality of extracted compounds inside the material (Agustini et al. 2015). Water hyacinth control should be combined with its utilization as a resource (Su et al. 2018).

Methods

Water hyacinth fiber extraction

In this research, the fiber separation process is done using the steam explosion method with an electric boiler model LDRD 0.4–2.5. The process of producing fibers from stem using the steam explosion method consists of seven steps: sort the stems, squeezing, steam explosion, washing, crushing, drying, and fiber separation. It is a quick and easy fiber production process. Fibers using steam pressure of 18 Bar, temperature 209°C and taking 5 minutes had the highest amount of fiber obtained after drying, with a weight of 150 grams (fresh weight 1,000 grams). This method is the right process to separate lignin from the plant surface, but produces rigid and opaque fibers. The plants are fed into the machine at the same time because the Water Hyacinth fiber is lignocellulosic biomass consisting of a complex mixture of lignin, hemicelluloses, and cellulose (Gao et al. 2013). In plant cells, cellulose chains are the main structural component (Lu and Hsieh 2012). The increase in extraction time resulted in a slightly shorter length (Flauzino Netoa et al. 2013). The twisting and scraping method peel the outer layer of the trunks into long, straight fibers. Water Hyacinth fiber, polyester, and cotton fiber have been used in the study. The basic fiber properties are given length and diameter using the mechanical extraction method. The plant-based cellulose nanofibres have the potential to be extracted into fibers that are thinner (Abraham et al. 2011). The Water Hyacinth fiber preparation is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Water hyacinth fiber separation (a) fiber cutting; (b) the steam explosion machine; (c) fiber collection after separation; (d) water hyacinth single fiber; and (e) diagram of steam explosion fiber.

Production of water hyacinth yarn

The study focused on several mix ratios and examined the physical characteristics of a blend of cotton, polyester, and Water Hyacinth-spun yarns. The yarns’ manufacturing with the blending ratio of Water Hyacinth, polyester, and cotton fibers was 20: 25: 55 by blended ration. Because there is the possibility of spinning yarn. All the prepared yarns were singles. The blended and pure yarns were spun on the open-end spinning system, which was incorporated to minimize the curling and twisting (Lakhchaura, Gahlot, and Rani 2019). The Water Hyacinth was first passed through the blow room to open waste rather than pass through the carding machine. Thereafter, the carded slivers of Water Hyacinth fibers were cut down to a length of 30 mm. Water Hyacinth staple-cut fibers, polyester, and cotton fibers were mixed and then fed into the blow room to create an intimate and homogeneous blend. Thereafter, the materials were processed through the card, draw frame, simplex, and spinning machine.

Water hyacinthfabrics

The Water Hyacinth industry produces two types of fabrics with two different structures: knitted and woven. The woven fabric production process creates two patterns: plain weave and twill fabrics. Using the Rapier loom, 100% cotton warp yarns and Water Hyacinth composite weft yarns. The knitted single-jersey structure is manufactured using a circular knitting machine. Knitting and weaving fabric preparation consists of three steps: the first is the plain weave, which weaves and interlaces the weft and warp yarns. Each weft yarn is made of two yarns made of cotton fibers, whereas a warp yarn is an interlaced Water Hyacinth composite yarn. The weaving is done at a 90-degree interlacing angle, creating a fabric with a smooth texture and a consistent density throughout the piece. After that, the twill fabric is woven at a 45-degree interlacing angle using Water Hyacinth composite weft and warp yarns (Aydin et al. 2011). And then, knitted fabric possesses the manipulated courses and wales to create visible details of floating vertical and horizontal yarns.

Evaluation of physical properties of blended yarns

The physical property test of Water Hyacinth yarn and fabrics. There are two types of instruments used for the physical property tests of Water Hyacinth yarn and fabrics. Testing five aspects of Water Hyacinth yarn’s physical properties were counts of yarn using ISO 7211–5: 1984 standard, tensile strength: grab test using ISO 13,934–2: 2014 standard, tear strength: Elmendorf using ISO 13,934–2: 2914 standard, and threads per inch using ISO 7211–2: 1984 standard. After that, the stitch density test for knitted fabrics was performed using the BS 5441: 1988 standard. Lastly, testing four aspects of Water Hyacinth fabrics’ physical properties included a bursting strength test using ISO 13,938–1: 1999 standard, fabric weight testing using ISO 3801: 1077 standard, thickness testing using ISO 5084: 1997 standard, and air permeability testing using ISO 9237: 1995 standard.

Results

Evaluation of physical properties of prepared blended yarns

The Water Hyacinth yarn process and characteristics are given in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Water hyacinth yarn spinning (a) fiber arrangement; (b) fiber spinning machine; (c) water hyacinth yarns and fibers; and (d) water hyacinth yarn.

From Figure 2, open-end spinning using a 20:25:55 ratio of Water Hyacinth fibers, polyester, and cotton starts with the preparation of Water Hyacinth fibers in the mixing chamber, which turns the fibers into lamellar fibers. The lap fibers then go into a silver fiber carding machine to card the fibers, as shown in (a). The fibers are thoroughly disentangled into an arrangement of fibers called roves. The roves later go into a fiber spinning machine, as shown in (b), and are wound on the cones. The brown yarns possess a unique physical identity, with details of Water Hyacinth yarns visible as seen in (d). A new blended yarn; a possibility of Water Hyacinth as a textile raw material made of the local waterweed corresponds with what Febin (2023) cited: that the open-end spinning machine renders the yarns with a quality acceptable for both manufacturers and users. Water Hyacinth fabrics as materials of great natural value with locally derived cultural characteristics (Rezania et al. 2015).

The development aims to create a type of yarn with a refined and delicate texture and a weight that is light enough to be the perfect material for everyday apparel. The material must also be ready for industrial production and commercial distribution. With the research and development trend toward high-quality yarns, they require fibers that are superfine and delicate. This corresponds with what a study by Militký et al. (2012) reveals: that Water Hyacinth fibers are natural fibers with large lumens and are highly porous. The external surface is complex and can hold air relatively well with the contact surface’s viscosity, making it an ideal material for delicate, lightweight fabrics popularly used for casual wear (Kozlowski and Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, 2020a; 2020b).

Yarn count, TPI, and twist direction

Physical property tests of yarn and Water Hyacinth fabrics Four aspects of the yarn’s physical properties are tested: count of yarns, spiral structure, yarn consistency, and tensile force resistance. There are four aspects to a Water Hyacinth fabric’s physical property: thickness, density, thread count, and tensile force resistance. The results are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Water hyacinth yarn’s and fabric’s physical properties.

Yarn type Fabric type	Yarn count (Tex)	Threads per Inch (tpi)	Tensile strength (N/tex)	Tear strength (gf)
Plain-woven fabric
warp yarns	16.3 (16.3 ‘S)	110	370.0	3,310
weft yarns	28.8 (20.5 ‘S)	55	280.0	1,989
Twill fabric
warp yarns	15.9 (37.1 ‘S)	106	410.0	1,949
weft yarns	29.1 (20.3 ‘S)	68	330.0	2,019
Knitted fabric			-	-
Wales	30.1	37	-	-
Courses	30.1 Tex	45	-	-

The yarn count test in Table 2 shows that the plain-woven pattern and the twill pattern have a similar number of warp yarns in 16.3 Tex and 15.9 Tex, respectively. The numbers of weft yarns made of Water Hyacinth composite between the two fabrics are also relatively close in 28.8 Tex and 29.1 Tex, respectively. The results also reveal that weft yarn is relatively larger than warp yarn, whereas the knitted fabric has a yarn size of 30.1 Tex, which is similar to both patterns of the woven fabric. It is noticeable that both types of yarn are classified as medium-sized, which corresponds with Kaewthep’s (1998) study, which categorizes yarn sizes into large (31–67 Tex), medium (11–20 Tex), and small (6–10 Tex). The yarn count per inch of Water Hyacinth fabrics shows that both the plain-woven and twill patterns contain a higher number of warp yarns (110 yarns per inch and 106 yarns per inch, respectively).

As for the weft yarns, the test results show that the twill pattern has more weft yarns than the plain-woven pattern in 68 yarns per inch and 55 yarns per inch, respectively. The knitted fabric’s test results show 45 rows per inch and 37 wales per inch. The numbers are consistent with Hossain et al. (2016) study, which associates the lower number of warp and weft yarns per inch with a fabric’s rougher texture. With most fabrics, the number of warp yarns is usually higher than that of weft yarns, while a warp yarn is relatively smaller than a weft yarn. The lower the number of warp and weft yarns per inch, the bigger the yarns tend to be, causing the fabric’s texture to be physically rougher due to the unrefined interlaced yarns.

Evaluation of the characteristics of water hyacinth fabrics

Weaving Water Hyacinth fabrics from consumer behavior analysis reveals people’s preferences for casual wear made of fabrics with a unique physical appearance, minimal creases, and good air permeation. The weaving process and analysis of the yarn production aim to create a material that answers such demands. Therefore, the research aims to produce yarns with a blending ratio of Water Hyacinth, polyester, and cotton of 20:25:55, which promotes Water Hyacinth in textile products while simultaneously increasing the commercial value of Water Hyacinth. Successful development and production of Water Hyacinth can ultimately increase career opportunities for communities where the plants are common in local natural water sources. In the meantime, this aquatic plant’s upcycle can bring sustainable improvements to local rivers and canals, corresponding with the government’s environmental policy. The study also serves as a guideline for future industrial production of natural textile products in Thailand. Two types of fabrics, one with a knitted structure and the other with a woven structure, are created. The rapier loom is brought in to produce twill and plain-woven patterns from 100% cotton warp yarns and Water Hyacinth composite weft yarns. For the knitted structure of single jersey fabric, the research uses a circular knitting machine for production, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Machines in Textile Manufacturing (a) weaving Machines; (b) knitting Machines; (c) samples of water hyacinth fabrics; (d) Plain-woven fabric; (e) twill fabric; and (f) knitted fabric.

Figure 3 reveals how the woven and knitted structures can create patterns for plain-woven fabric and twill fabric. Water Hyacinth fabrics, both in knitted and woven structures, integrate a unique appearance with a comfortable, soft finish. It confirms what Mobasher (2011) has said about sustainable design principles as an approach to design with minimal to zero impact on the environment. Water Hyacinth fabrics also correspond with sustainable design principles. They are the upcycle process products, which turn excessive aquatic weeds into costume products with market values that can generate income for people in the community. For the woven fabric with a plain-woven pattern structure (d), the research finds that double-yarns can increase the strength of the warp yarns, creating a soft and flexible fabric suitable for all types of apparel with a unique pattern, unlike most woven fabrics. The fabric also offers excellent air permeation quality and modern-looking details. The twill pattern’s structure (e) reveals unique physical properties that differentiate the fabric from other woven fabrics. The fabric is modern-looking, soft in texture, highly flexible, and has excellent air permeation quality. The fabric’s structure is manufactured to have different physical properties from most woven fabrics, with modern-looking details, a soft and highly flexible texture, excellent air permeation quality, uniform, consistent density, and durability, making it a suitable material for pants.

The study reveals the Water Hyacinth fabric’s (f) a smooth texture and consistent density, which agrees with what Abdel-Sabour (2010) proposed about Water Hyacinth fiber and the physical properties that make it a perfect material for everyday apparel for its ability to absorb humidity, as well as durability and tactile comfort. As for the tensile force resistance of the Water Hyacinth fabrics, the test results indicate that both the plain-woven and twill patterns contain warp yarns, which are more resistant to tensile force than the weft yarns. In other words, the tensile force resistance of the twill pattern’s warp yarns accounts for 410.0 Newton (N/tex) and 370.0 Newton (N/tex) for the plain-woven pattern. The tensile force resistance of weft yarns in a twill pattern is superior to the weft yarns in a plain-woven pattern (330.0 N/tex and 280.0 N/tex, respectively). The Water Hyacinth fabrics possess a higher resistance to tensile force, making them more durable. This finding coincides with Sonthisombat (2012) found when studying the tensile force resistance test. That was evident from the test Water Hyacinth did with a sample fabric with high tensile resistance, which was more durable than the fabric with low tensile resistance.

The test results of the Water Hyacinth fabrics’ tear resistance show that the warp yarns of the plain-woven pattern demonstrate greater durability than the weft yarns (3,310-gram force (gf) and 1,989-gram force (gf), respectively). The weft yarns of the twill pattern have greater tear resistance than the warp yarns (2,019 gram (gf) and 1,949 gram (gf), respectively). Most fabrics with twill patterns are more resistant to tears than the ones with a plain-woven pattern. The Water Hyacinth fabrics, in general, have high tear resistance, making them more durable physically. According to Sonthisombat (2012) study that tests the tear resistance ability of a woven fabric sample and finds that the sample fabric with greater tear resistance is more durable than the sample fabric with lower tear resistance.

Evaluation of physical properties of fabrics

Physical properties of Water Hyacinth fabrics Additionally, four other physical properties of Water Hyacinth fabrics (bursting strength resistance, weight, thickness, and air permeation) are also tested. Featured in Table 3 are the test results.

Table 3. Water hyacinth fabrics’ physical properties.

Fabric Type	Density (g/m^2)	Thickness (mm)	Burst Strength (kPa)	Air Permeability (1/m^2/s)
Plain-woven fabric	143	0.445	-	664.0
Twill fabric	157 (2/1) Z direction	0.427	-	531.9
Knitted fabric	220	0.797	689	259.7

From Table 3, the test to determine the yarn numbers shows that the knitted fabric contains the highest density at 220 grams per square meter (g/m²). The next heaviest is the twill fabric, weighing 157 grams per square meter (g/m²) a 2/1 twill in which direction Z, while the woven fabric with a plain-woven pattern has the lightest density of 143 grams per square meter (g/m²). The results automatically put Water Hyacinth fabrics in the medium-weight fabric category, coinciding with Kaewthep’s (1998) classification of fabric density: very heavyweight (475 grams per square meter), heavyweight (300–375 grams per square meter), medium weight (170–240 grams per square meter), and lightweight (70–100 grams per square meter). The test results on the thickness of Water Hyacinth fabrics reveal that the knitted fabric is the thickest (0.797 mm), whereas the plain-woven pattern is thicker than the twill pattern (0.445 mm and 0.427 mm, respectively).

Therefore, the knitted fabric can be categorized as very thick, while both knitted fabric patterns are in the medium-thick fabric category. The categorization corresponds to the study conducted by Kaewthep (1998), which classifies the fabric thickness into three categories: very thick (0.47 mm or more), medium-thick (0.23–0.46 mm), and thin (from 0.20 mm). With a bursting strength of 689 kPa, the knitted Water Hyacinth fabric can be classified as a high-burst-resistance fabric. The plain-woven pattern has a higher air permeation rate when compared to the twill fabric (664.0 square meters per second (1/m² /s) and 531.9 square meters per second (1/m² /s), respectively), while the knitted pattern shows the lowest rate of air permeation at 259.7 square meters per second (1/m² /s), which is classified as a fabric with good air permeation.

The Water Hyacinth yarn is brown with distinct physical characteristics. There are two types of structures for Water Hyacinth fabric: woven and knitted. The plain-woven pattern of the fabric is created by the plain-weaving method, in which ply yarns are added to strengthen the weft yarns’ structure. The twill pattern’s structure renders a fabric with modern-looking details and unique physical properties such as a soft and highly flexible texture, excellent air permeation quality, uniform, consistent density, and durability, making it an ideal material for pants. The two structures possess their own physical properties, consequently differentiating the fabrics from other woven fabrics with a soft and highly flexible texture that can permeate air better and modern-looking details. The knitted fabric’s physical properties stand out for its soft texture and consistent yarn density. The reduction in inter-yarn space and higher yarn hairiness lead to a reduction in air and water permeability values with an increase in cotton proportion.

Physical property test results of water hyacinth yarn and fabrics

The yarn physical property test reveals that warp and weft yarns have similar sizes. The thread count per inch of both patterns shows a higher number of warp yarns than weft yarns. The knitted fabric’s physical properties show a higher number of courses than wales, whereas the warp yarns offer greater tear resistance than the weft yarns. The weft yarns of the plain-woven fabric show higher tear resistance than the twill fabric’s weft yarns. The warp yarns of plain-woven fabric show greater resistance to tearing than the weft yarns. The test results also show that the heavier and thicker the fabric, the better the burst resistance will be, and Water Hyacinth fabrics are considered the type of fabric with high burst strength. A woven fabric with a plain-woven pattern is the type of fabric with the highest air permeability.

The findings coincide with what the Ramadani et al. (2020) stated about the improvement in the human capital structure as a strategy that focuses on elevating and developing new skilled workers’ potential. Simultaneously, the country must produce younger generations of talented human resources for the industrial sector. The idea corresponds with what Militký et al. (2012) propose about how innovative fashion products made from natural materials are considered textile inventions that can better use excess materials from the agricultural sector. The most common commercial natural resource that contains cellulose is wood. Several natural fibers, such as cotton, flax, hemp, jute, and sisal, also contain a large amount of cellulose (Sheltami et al. 2012). The attempt will add additional value to Thailand’s agricultural materials. Because of its abundance, being a perennial crop, and lower cost (Chandra, George, and Narayanankutty 2016). The development of water hyacinth into natural textile fabrics with substantial commercial value can transform unwanted aquatic weeds into high-quality material to produce fashion and home textile products. Eco-friendly textiles are gaining importance in the consumer market (Parthiban, Srikrishnan, and Kandhavadivu 2017). Thus, it is the most abundant and renewable natural resource on earth (Mandal and Chakrabarty 2011), and green resources represent new objectives for reducing gas emissions and consequent pollution (Fortunati, Luzi, et al. 2016).

Conclusion

The development of Water Hyacinth blended yarns to attain a more refined texture begins with the development of weft yarn mix ratio of Water Hyacinth, polyester, and cotton (20:25:55), which has a possibility of application of Water Hyacinth as a textile raw material. It has high physical properties and can produce yarns and fabrics with a lighter weight and more refined textural qualities. The fabrics with such physical properties are suitable as materials for novel products with substantial market value.

Highlights

1. Water hyacinth fiber can be spun into yarn. The mixing ratio of water hyacinth, polyester, and cotton weft yarns is 20:25:55, according to the ratio.

2. Water hyacinth fabric has two different types of structures. Ply yarns are incorporated into the plain weave to reinforce the weft structure and produce a weft structure.

3. Water hyacinth knit fabric has greater weight and thickness and is relatively more resistant to breakage. On the contrary, fabric woven from water hyacinth has the best air permeability.

4. Water hyacinth fabric has high physical properties and can produce lightweight yarns and fabrics with finer texture properties.

5. Water hyacinth fabric has physical properties that make it more comfortable to wear and suitable as a material for everyday clothing such as pajamas and underwear. This allows the fabric to be further developed into a commercial product with a high market value.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.