‘Scenery’ and the origins of heritage preservation in New Zealand and Australia

ABSTRACT

In explaining the modern rise of interest in historic sites and their preservation, tourism has typically been seen as a lesser influence, or worse, as a corrupting influence on the ‘real’ role of heritage. While today most within the heritage community have moved beyond such views, the significance of tourism to the rise of both heritage and formal heritage protection regimes is not widely appreciated. Focusing on the colonial contexts of the 1903 New Zealand Scenery Preservation Act and 1915 Tasmanian Act of the same name, this article seeks to reclaim the importance of tourism to the emergence of heritage protection, and the ever-evolving understanding of the values that are seen to constitute the basis of heritage’s utility.

KEYWORDS:

• Heritage preservation
• scenery preservation
• Australia
• New Zealand
• place attachment

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1990).

2 David Lowenthal, The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History (London: Viking, 1997).

3 Ludomir Lozny, Comparative Archaeologies: A Sociological View of the Science of the Past (New York, Springer, 2011); Bella Lozny, Heritage, Place, and Community (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000).

4 Kynan Gentry, ‘“The Pathos of Conservation”: Raphael Samuel and the Politics of Heritage’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 21, no. 6 (2015): 568–9.

5 For the wider heritage perspective on this see Laurajane Smith, Uses of Heritage (Oxford: Routledge, 2006). For the economic role of cultural heritage see Tolina Loulanski, ‘Cultural Heritage in Socio-Economic Development: Local and Global Perspectives’, Environments: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 34, no. 2 (2006): 51–69; Rabah Arezki and others, Tourism Specialization and Economic Development: Evidence from the UNESCO World Heritage List, IMF Working Paper WP/09/176s, (Washington: International Monetary Fund, 2009).

6 Erica Avrami and Randall Mason, ‘Mapping the Issue of Values’, in Values in Heritage Management: Emerging Approaches and Research Directions, eds. Erica Avrami and others (The Getty Conservation Institute, 2019), http://www.getty.edu/publications/heritagemanagement/http://www.getty.edu/publications/heritagemanagement/; Yahaya Ahmad, ‘The Scope and Definitions of Heritage: From Tangible to Intangible’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 12, no. 3 (2006): 292–300.

7 Dede Fairchild Ruggles and Helaine Silverman, ‘From Tangible to Intangible Heritage’, in Intangible Heritage Embodied, eds. Dede Fairchild Ruggles and Helaine Silverman (New York: Springer, 2009), 1–14.

8 Dobrosława Wiktor-Mach, ‘Cultural Heritage and Development: UNESCO’s New Paradigm in a Changing Geopolitical Context’, Third World Quarterly 40, no. 9 (2019): 1593–1612.

9 Astrid Swenson, ‘Conceptualising Heritage in Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century France, Germany and England’ (PhD diss., Cambridge University, 2007).

10 See, for example, Richard White, ‘Tourists, Students and Australian History: the Good, the Bad and the Boring’, Teaching History 47, no. 2 (2013): 4–7; Tom Griffiths, Hunters and Collectors: the Antiquarian Imagination in Australia (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

11 See, for example, Chris Gosden and Chantal Knowles, Collecting Colonialism: Material Culture and Colonial Change (Oxford: Berg, 2001); John McAleer and Sarah Longair, eds., Curating Empire: Museums and the British Imperial Experience (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012); Nicholas Thomas, Possessions: Indigenous Art, Colonial Culture (London: Thames & Hudson, 1999); Ian McNiven and Lynette Russell, Appropriated Pasts: Indigenous Peoples and the Colonial Culture of Archaeology (Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2005).

12 See for example Seyyed Mostafa Rasoolimanesh and others, ‘Urban vs. Rural Destinations: Residents’ Perceptions, Community Participation and Support for Tourism Development’, Tourism Management 60 (2017): 147–58; Youngsun Shin, ‘Residents’ Perceptions of the Impact of Cultural Tourism on Urban Development: The Case of Gwangju, Korea’, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research 15, no. 4 (2010), 405–6; Xiaoping Zhuang and others, ‘Sociocultural Impacts of Tourism on Residents of World Cultural Heritage Sites in China’, Sustainability 11, no. 3 (2019): 840.

13 Agustin Cocola-Gant and Ana Gago, ‘Airbnb, Buy-to-Let Investment and Tourism-Driven Displacement: A Case Study in Lisbon’, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 53, no. 7 (2021): 1671–88; Fenne Pinkster and Willem Boterman, ‘When the Spell is Broken: Gentrification, Urban Tourism and Privileged Discontent in the Amsterdam Canal District’, Cultural Geographies 24, no. 3 (2017): 457–72; Kevin Gotham, ‘Tourism Gentrification: The Case of New Orleans’ vieux carre (French Quarter)’, Urban Studies 42, no. 7 (2005): 1099–121.

14 Jeroen Oskam, The Overtourism Debate: NIMBY, Nuisance, Commodification (Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited 2020), 121–90; Claudio Milano, Marina Novelli, and Joseph Cheer, ‘Overtourism and Tourismphobia: A Journey through Four Decades of Tourism Development, Planning and Local Concerns’, Tourism Planning & Development 16, no. 4 (2019): 353–7.

15 Richard Buswell, Mallorca and Tourism: History, Economy and Environment (Bristol: Channel View Publications, 2011), 36–49.

16 Cédric Humair, ‘The Hotel Industry and its Importance in the Technical and Economic Development of a Region: The Lake Geneva Case (1852–1914)’, Journal of Tourism History 3, no. 3 (2011): 258.

17 Eric Zuelow, A History of Modern Tourism (New York: Palgrave, 2016), 95–6.

18 Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2008).

19 Peter Hoffenberg, An Empire on Display: English, Indian, and Australian Exhibitions from the Crystal Palace to the Great War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 1–30.

20 David Hamer, ‘Towns in New Societies’, in New Worlds? The Comparative History of New Zealand and the United States, ed. Jock Phillips (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1989), 77–95.

21 Harry Scheiber, ‘Urban Rivalry and Internal Improvements in the Old Northwest, 1820–1860’, Ohio History, 71, no. 3 (1962): 227–39; Timothy Mahoney, River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820–1870 (Cambridge University Press, 2003).

22 David Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth-Century Urban Frontier (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).

23 D. O’Sullivan to Scenery Preservation Commission, 27 August 1904, LS, 70/11, Archives New Zealand (ANZ). In reviewing the situation in 1874, the Colonial Museum’s director James Hector and other experts noted that while preservation was highly desirable, the concerns of progress and the breaking in of the land were paramount, Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR), H-5, 1874, pp. 14, 18. For the Australian context, see Bronwyn Meikle, ‘Cronyism, Muddle and Money: Land Allocation in Tasmania under the Waste Lands Acts, 1856–1889’ (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania, 2014).

24 The 1884 Land Amendment Act, for example, permitted the establishment of reserves as ‘natural curiosities’. Section 235 of the 1892 Land Act enabled the Governor to reserve any land containing ‘thermal, mineral or other springs which … should be reserved for the public health, or any land wherein or whereon natural curiosities or scenery may exist of a character of national interest’. New Zealand Statutes, Land Act 1892, section 235.

25 McKenzie, Hansard, vol. 72, July 22, 1891, p. 399.

26 AJHR, H-2, 1922, p. 1.

27 AJHR, B-1 (Public Accounts), D-2 (Railways), and H-2 (Tourist and Health Resorts).

28 This calculation is based on Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden, ‘Maddison Style Estimates of the Evolution of the World Economy. A New 2020 Update’, https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-per-capita-maddison-2020 (accessed March 15, 2023); and from Keith Rankin, ‘New Zealand’s Gross Domestic Product, per capita’, (rev October 20, 2003), http://keithrankin.co.nz/chart/LongTermGDPpc.gifhttp://keithrankin.co.nz/chart/LongTermGDPpc.gif (accessed March 15, 2023).

29 Jim Davidson and Peter Spearitt, Holiday Business: Tourism in Australia since 1870 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2000), 39. Growth over the period was from 10,000 to 40,000.

30 David Young, Making Crime Pay: the Evolution of Convict Tourism in Tasmania (Hobart: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 1996), 62.

31 For an account of the centrality of Gothic ruins to the picturesque tour in the latter half of the eighteenth century, see Malcolm Andrews, The Search for the Picturesque: Landscape, Aesthetics and Tourism in Britain, 1760–1800 (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989), 39–66. Also see Peter Brunt, ‘The Sublime and the “Civilized” Subject: History, Painting and Cook’s Second Voyage’ (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2000).

32 For example, Joseph Mawman, A Picturesque Tour through France, Switzerland, on the Banks of the Rhine, and through Part of the Netherlands (1817); Black’s Picturesque Tourist of Scotland (1852), Ireland (1854) and England and Wales (1851); Shaw’s Tourist’s Picturesque Guide to North Wales (1873); and The Picturesque Tourist: A Handy Guide Round the World (1877). For wider context see William Williams, Creating Irish Tourism: The First Century, 1750–1850 (London: Anthem, 2010), 69–106; and Ian Ousby, The Englishman’s England: Taste, Travel and the Rise of Tourism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

33 Cited in Judith Brine, ‘Charting Shifting Views of Port Arthur and Associated Methodological Problems’, in Shifting Views: Selected Essays on the Architectural History of Australia and New Zealand, eds. Andrew Leach, Antony Moulis and Nicole Sully (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2008), 7.

34 George Taylor, ‘Those Were the Days’: Being Reminiscences of Australian Artists and Writers (Sydney: Tyrell’s, 1918), 10–2; Richard White, Inventing Australia: Images and Identity, 1688–1980 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1981), 95–6.

35 Guide to Excursionists between Australia and Tasmania (Melbourne: H. Thomas, 1870), 120. Richard White and Justine Greenwood make a similar observation about Sydney, where by the 1920s some older areas of the city were seen as ‘quaint’, ‘charming’, or ‘old-world’. Richard White and Justine Greenwood, ‘Tourism’, Sydney Journal 3, no. 2 (2011), 1–16.

36 Tasmanian Government Tourist and Immigration Department, Beautiful Tasmania for Health, Holidays, Pleasure and Sport (Hobart: Government Printer, 1920), 42; Tasmanian Government Tourist Department, Hotel and Boarding House Directory Tasmania (Launceston: Examiner and Weekly Courier Offices, 1926), 72; The Mercury, May 18, 1922.

37 Jane Lennon, ‘Arthur, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia: Convict Prison Islands in the Antipodes’, in Places of Pain and Shame: Dealing with ‘Difficult Heritage’, eds. William Logan and Kier Reeves (Routledge: Oxford, 2009), 177. Perspectives began to change in the 1950s, with the discussion ensuring after the influential historian Manning Clark in 1956 questioned the prevailing view that transported convicts were victims of the British judicial and economic system. Clark, ‘The Origins of the Convicts Transported to Eastern Australia, 1787–1852, part 1’, Historical Studies, Australia and New Zealand 7, no. 26 (1956), 121.

38 See Babette Smith, Australia’s Birthstain: The Startling Legacy of the Convict Era (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2008); Heather Gaunt, ‘Social Memory in the Public Historical Sphere: Henry Savery’s The Hermit in Van Diemen’s Land and the Tasmanian Public Library’, Library & Information History 25, no. 2 (2009): 79–96.

39 Quoted in Tom Griffiths, ‘Past Silences: Aborigines and Convicts in our History-making’, Australian Cultural History 6 (1987): 18.

40 Richard White, ‘The Presence of the Past: The Uses of History in Tasmanian Travel Writing’, Studies in Travel Writing 20, no. 1 (2016): 49–66.

41 The Mercury, 23 December 1913.

42 Brian Mackrell, Hariru Wikitoria!: An Illustrated History of the Maori Tour of England, 1863 (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1985), 9–11; Conal McCarthy, Exhibiting Maori: A History of Colonial Cultures of Display (Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2007).

43 New Zealand as a Tourist and Health Resort: A Handbook to the Hot Lake District, the Southern Lakes, Sounds, etc. (Auckland: Thos. Cook & Son, 1893), 127.

44 AJHR, H-2, 1903, p. vi.

45 Maoritanga can be understood as the concept of Maori identity or Maori culture.

46 McCarthy, Exhibiting Maori, 53–4.

47 Lynn Lochhead, ‘Preserving the Brownies Portion: A History of Voluntary Nature Conservation Organisations in New Zealand 1888–1935’ (PhD thesis, Lincoln University, 1994), 140; Thelma Strongman, City Beautiful: The First 100 Years of the Christchurch Beautifying Association (Christchurch: Clerestory Press, 1999), 2.

48 Taranaki Herald, August 24, 1900.

49 The Press, April 4, 1899.

50 See, for example, Paul Star, ‘From Acclimatisation to Preservation: Colonists and the Natural Works in Southern New Zealand, 1860–1894’ (PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1997), and Geoff Park, Effective Exclusion?: An Exploratory Overview of Crown Actions and Maori Responses Concerning the Indigenous Flora and Fauna, 1912–1983 (Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal, 2001), 245–327.

51 The Indigenous landscape, for example, had played an integral part in the popularity of places like Rotorua and Waitomo since the 1880s. For more on this see Ian Rockel, Taking the Waters: Early Spas in New Zealand (Wellington: Government Printing Office, 1986).

52 For example, ‘It is Difficult to Overestimate the Value to the Colony from the Presence of Tourists Travelling Throughout it, and Yearly it is Becoming a More Valuable Asset to Us’. Fraser, Hansard, vol.126, October 22, 1903, p. 708. Similarly see Baldey and Reeves, Hansard, vol.127, November 6, 1903, pp. 399–400.

53 Seddon, Hansard, vol. 126, October 22, 1903, p. 704.

54 Hansard, vol. 126, October 22, 1903, pp. 704–13. The term ‘pa’ (commonly spelt ‘pah’ in the nineteenth century) can be understood as ‘fortified Maori village’.

55 Breakdown of Scenery Preservation Commission’s recommendations. Scenic: 317; Thermal: 10; Historic (Maori): 75; Historic (European): 12. Those listed as both scenic and historic are listed in both categories. AJHR, C-6, 1906, pp. 5–16 and LS 70/5, ANZ.

56 Percy Smith to Stevenson, 15 June 1904, LS, 70/20 and LS 70/21, ANZ.

57 Acting Superintendent of Scenery Preservation to Kinsington, 26 July 1905, LS 70/8, ANZ.

58 13 January 1905, LS 70/10, ANZ.

59 AJHR, C-1, 1900, pp. vii–viii.

60 Resolution 289, LS 70/10, ANZ.

61 AJHR, C-6, 1907, p. 33.

62 ‘New Zealand’s Great Tourist Resorts and Health-Giving Spas’, New Zealand Freelance, 7:337, 15 December 1906; ‘Brief report of the Wanganui River and proposed reservations’, AJHR, C-6, 1908, p. 14.

63 Ibid., 14–5.

64 Nor was this an isolated instance, with a similar approach taken to the Mokau River in 1909. See ‘Report on the Mokau River’, AJHR, C-6, 1909, pp. 10–6.

65 For a list of those sites reserved, see Helen Leach, ‘Early Attempts at Historic Heritage Site Protection in New Zealand’, Archaeology in New Zealand 34, no. 2 (June 1991): 88–90.

66 Hansard, vol. 29, 15 August 1904. Particular issues raised were that native land could be taken without consultation, the process by which Maori lands were valued, and that payment of money for lands taken was put into the hands of the Public Trustee.

67 Robinson to unknown, 13 September 1904, TO1 1904/191/12, ANZ.

68 Findley, Hansard, vol. 153, November 22, 1910, pp. 890–1.

69 A ‘bushranger’ can be understood as a criminal who takes refuge in, and operates from, the wilderness. Bushrangers have been extremely influential figures in Australian popular culture since the late-nineteenth century, often held in esteem (or at best viewed ambivalently) as political rebels. For more on this, see Andrew Couzens, A Cultural History of the Bushranger Legend in Theatres and Cinemas, 1828–2017 (London: Anthem Press, 2019).

70 ‘Burke Museum in Beechworth requests Ned K armour Burke Museum in Beechworth requests Ned K armour’ [sic], VPRS 4965 P0 UNIT 1 ITEM 46 RECORD 13, Public Record Office Victoria.

71 The Mercury, May 6, 1873.

72 Brian Egloff, ‘Cultural Resource Management: A View from Port Arthur Historic Site’, Australasian Journal of Historical Archaeology 2 (1984): 73–9.

73 Tasmanian Steam Navigation Company, Guide for Visitors to Tasmania, or, How to Spend my Holiday, 1887–8 (Hobart: The Mercury, 1887).

74 Egloff, ‘Cultural Resource Management’, 73.

75 The Mercury, March 2, 1889, March 7, 1889, and March 9, 1889.

76 Tasmanian Mail, September 9, 1899.

77 See Simon Harris, ‘Selling Tasmania: Boosterism and the Creation of the Tourist State 1912–1928’ (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania, 1993).

78 NS1086/1/1, ‘Minutes of meetings’, Port Arthur Progress and Tourist Association, Tasmanian Archives; Minutes of the Port Arthur Tourist and Progress Association and AB541/1/13 ‘Tourism, Correspondence of the Tasman Municipal Council’, Tasmanian Archives.

79 Daily Telegraph, October 25, 1901.

80 Ibid.

81 The Mercury, July 7, 1914.

82 Daily Telegraph, November 9, 1914.

83 Jeff Mosley, ‘Scenic Reserve and Fauna Sanctuary Systems in Tasmania’, in The Last of Lands: Conservation in Australia, eds. Leonard Webb and others (Marrickville: Jacaranda Press, 1969), 161–9.

84 AA264/1/1, Scenery Preservation Board, ‘Minutes of Meetings, 7/6/1916’, Tasmanian Archives.

85 Ibid., 7/6/1916 and 9/7/2016. At Port Arthur these sites consisted of the model prison, penitentiary, old church, and Dead Island and Point Puer, as well as Eaglehawk Neck.

86 The World, July 10, 1919.

87 For example, in 1925, 86% of expenditure was on Tasman Peninsula reserves; 80% in 1927, and 81% in 1929. Scenery Preservation Board, Annual Reports, 1920–1940.

88 The Mercury, July 9, 1918.

89 The World, March 30, 1922.

90 The Daily Post, November 17, 1908 and The Courier, November 12, 1908.

91 AA264/1/1, Scenery Preservation Board, ‘Minutes of Meetings’, 3 November 1922, Tasmanian Archives.

92 Jeff Mosley, ‘Aspects of the Geography of Recreation in Tasmania’ (PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1963), 222.

93 The Mercury, August 10, 1935.

94 The Mercury, June 1, 1938 and June 24, 1938.

95 The Mercury, July 21, 1939.

96 The Mercury, November 16, 1937.

97 Country Life Stock and Station Journal, November 14, 1924.

98 Stephen Nicholas and Peter Shergold, ‘Unshackling the Past’, in Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia’s Past, ed. Stephen Nicholas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 1–13. Key individuals here were the historian and tourism promoter John Moore-Robinson, and Clive Lord.

99 Clive Lord, Tasmania at Home, Including a Description of the Leading Towns (Hobart: Edward Lynch, 1926).

100 Cited in Stefan Petrow, ‘Conservative and Reverent Souls: The Growth of Historical Consciousness in Tasmania 1935–1960’, Public History Review 11 (2004): 136. For Emmett’s views see The Mercury, May 28, 1936.

101 See, for instance, The Mercury editorials on June 15, 1935 and July 26, 1937. For details on state income from the site, see AB541 /1/13, Correspondence of the Tasman Municipal Council: Tourism: Council Clerk to Chair, Scenery Preservation Board, 14 May 1937, and AB541/1/1, Correspondence of the Tasman Municipal Council: Audit: Audit Department to Warden, 18 June 1936.

102 White, ‘The Presence of the Past’.

103 The Mercury, February 8, 1913 and October 4, 1913.

104 The Mercury, October 23, 1924; AA264/1/1, Minutes of the Scenery Preservation Board, 7 July 1916, 19 July 1916, 16 August 1916, and 21 September 1917.

105 Examiner, July 13, 1928; The Mercury, February 17, 1938.

106 The Mercury, June 1, 1938 and June 2, 1938.

107 For an overview of the debate around this, see Kynan Gentry and Laurajane Smith, ‘Critical Heritage Studies and the Legacies of the Late-Twentieth Century Heritage Canon’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 25, no. 11 (2019): 1149–55.

108 For background on the expansion of international heritage norms see Cari Goetcheus and Nora Mitchell, ‘The Venice Charter and Cultural Landscapes: Evolution of Heritage Concepts and Conservation Over Time’ Change Over Time 4, no. 2 (2014): 338–57; for planning see Jyoti Hosagrahar, ‘A History of Heritage Conservation in City Planning’, in The Routledge Handbook of Planning History, ed. Carola Hein (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018), 441–56; for social history and heritage, see Gentry, ‘“The Pathos of Conservation”’.

109 For an introduction to the politics of heritage values, see John Tunbridge and John Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict (Chichester: Wiley, 1996); and Cornelius Holtorf, ‘Heritage Values in Contemporary Popular Culture’, in Heritage Values in Contemporary Society, eds. George Smith and others (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 43–54. More recent efforts to move beyond this can be found in Ioannis Poulios, ‘Moving Beyond a Values-Based Approach to Heritage Conservation’, Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 12, no. 2 (2010): 170–85; and Rebecca Madgin and James Lesh, People-Centred Methodologies for Heritage Conservation: Exploring Emotional Attachments to Historic Urban Places (Abingdon: Routledge, 2021).

110 Scholarly interest in place attachment is typically said to start with Marc Fried’s ‘Grieving for a Lost Home’, in The Urban Condition: People and Policy in the Metropolis, ed. Leonard Duhl (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 151–71, taking off as an area of focus a decade later with Yi-Fu Tuan’s Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1974). For work on resident perception see Gerard Kyle, Andrew Mowen, and Michael Tarrant, ‘Linking Place Preferences with Place Meaning: An Examination of the Relationship between Place Motivation and Place Attachment’, Journal of Environmental Psychology 24, no. 4 (2004): 439–54; and Haywantee Ramkissoon and others, ‘Testing the Dimensionality of Place Attachment and its Relationships with Place Satisfaction and Pro-environmental Behaviours: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach’, Tourism Management 36 (2013): 552–66. For work more specifically aligned with tourism, see Dimitrios Stylidis and others, ‘Residents’ Support for Tourism Development: The Role of Residents’ Place Image and Perceived Tourism Impacts’, Tourism Management 45 (2014): 260–74; Dogan Gursoy and Denney Rutherford, ‘Host Attitudes toward Tourism: An Improved Structural Model’, Annals of Tourism Research 31, no. 3 (2004): 495–516; and Bynum Boley and others, ‘Empowerment and Resident Attitudes toward Tourism: Strengthening the Theoretical Foundation through a Weberian Lens’, Annals of Tourism Research 49 (2014): 33–50.

111 See, for example, Dimitrios Stylidis, ‘Place Attachment, Perception of Place and Residents’ Support for Tourism Development’, Tourism Planning & Development 15, no. 2 (2018): 188–210; Robin Nunkoo, Stephen Smith and Haywantee Ramkissoon, ‘Residents’ Attitudes to Tourism: A Longitudinal Study of 140 Articles from 1984 to 2010’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism 21 (2013): 5–25; Jane Grenville, ‘Conservation as Psychology: Ontological Security and the Built Environment’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 13, no. 6 (2007): 447–61; Courtney Quinn and Angela Halfacre, ‘Place Matters: An Investigation of Farmers’ Attachment to Their Land’, Human Ecology Review 20:2 (2014): 117–32; Marianna Strzelecka, Bynum Boley, and Kyle Woosnam, ‘Place Attachment and Empowerment: Do Residents Need to be Attached to be Empowered?’, Annals of Tourism Research 66 (2017): 61–73.

112 Clive Seligman, Geoffrey Syme, and Rae Gilchrist, ‘The Role of Values and Ethical Principles in Judgments of Environmental Dilemmas’, Journal of Social Issues 50, no. 3 (1994): 105–19.

113 Cathy Marr, Public Works Takings of Maori Land, 1840–1981 (Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal Division, 1997); Peter McBurney, Scenery Preservation and Public Works Takings (Taupo-Rotorua) c1880s–1980 (Wellington: Crown Forestry Rental Trust, 2004).

114 For detail see Michel Picard and Robert Wood, eds., Tourism, Ethnicity and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997); Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 149–51.

115 Birks to Robieson, 22 November 1909, BAEO, A259/44a/244, ANZ; MacKenzie to Tarawera, 18 February 1910, TO1, 1904/288 part 3, ANZ.

116 An illustration of this can be seen in Wilhelm Dittmer, Reflections: Sketches on the Wanganui River (Wanganui: A.D. Willis, 1905) – a book wholly composed of picturesque imagery of Maori life on a river. For specifics see Waitangi Tribunal, He Whiritaunoka: The Whanganui Land Report (Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal, 2015), 753–812.

117 For examples of this see Roger Neich, ‘The Gateways of Maketu: Ngati Pikiao Carving Style and the Persistence of Form’, in Pacific Art: Persistence, Change and Meaning, ed. Anita Herle and others, (Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing, 2002), 264–7; McCarthy, Exhibiting Māori.

118 ‘Pakeha’ has varied meanings but can be broadly understood to mean ‘non-Maori’ New Zealander.

119 Country Life Stock and Station Journal, November 14, 1924.

120 The Mercury, August 5, 1926. For more on the film and the circumstances of its production see Michael Roe, ‘Vandiemenism Debated: The Filming of “His Natural Life”, 1926–7’, Journal of Australian Studies 13, no. 24 (1989): 35–51.

121 Country Life Stock and Station Journal, November 14, 1924.

122 United Nations World Tourism Organisation, Report on Tourism and Culture Synergies (Madrid: UNWTO, 2018); Greg Richards, ‘Cultural Tourism: A Review of Recent Research and Trends’, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018): 12–21.

123 A good overview of this can be found in Yang Liu, Karine Dupre and Xin Jin, ‘A Systematic Review of Literature on Contested Heritage’, Current Issues in Tourism 24, no. 4 (2021): 442–65.

124 Meskell, Lynn, ‘Transacting UNESCO World Heritage: Gifts and Exchanges on a Global Stage’, Social Anthropology, 23, no. 1 (2015): 3–21.

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Kynan Gentry

Kynan Gentry is a lecturer in the School of Social Sciences at the University of Western Australia. In addition to earlier holding research fellow and lectureship positions at the Australian National University, he previously worked as a historian for History Group, Ministry for Culture and Heritage in New Zealand.