African museums and their participation in the debates on the ICOM new museum definition

ABSTRACT

From 2017 to 2022, ICOM worked on changing the 2007 definition of a museum to make it accord the challenges and responsibilities of the twenty-first century. To make the process transparent and participatory, ICOM invited all interested stakeholders to submit their vision of a museum. By April 2019, out of 269 new museum definitions proposed, Africa, with only 17 definitions, remained the least active region in the discussion of the reinterpretation and reconceptualisation of a museum. Additional consultations initiated in 2020 after the postponed vote in Kyoto got over a 60% rate of responses from the continent. To understand African participation and contribution properly, the article analyses how a museum as an institution has come into historical being, how it has been legitimised over time, and whether or not the newly approved definition in Prague, 2022, is truly transformative and representative for Africa.

KEYWORDS:

• Africa
• museum definition
• ICOM
• AFRICOM

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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4 B.B. Soares, ‘Museum in Colonial Contexts: The Politics of Defining an Imported Definition,’ ICOFOM: Defining Museums of the 21st Century: Plural Experiences, eds. by B.B. Soares, K. Brown, and O. Nazor (Paris: ICOM/ICOFOM, 2018), pp. 163–168.

5 B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 2^nd ed. (New York: Verso, 1991), p. 163.

6 P. Duignan and L.H. Gann, Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960. Vol.5: A Bibliographical Guide to Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), p. 9.

7 Duignan and Gann, 1973; K. Myles, ‘Museum Development in African Countries,’ Museum International, 28, 4 (1976), 196–202.

8 G. Zaucha, ‘Communities and Museum in Africa,’ in Proceedings of the ICOM Symposium Museum and Communities, ed. by M.R. Schärer (Norway, 1995), 117.

9 Duignan and Gann, 1973, 11.

10 E.N. Arinze, ‘African Museums: The Challenge of Change,’ Museum International, 50, 1 (1998), 31.

11 A.O. Konaré, ‘Towards a New Type of “Ethnographic” Museum in Africa,’ Museum International, 35, 3 (1983), 146.

12 S.A. Baghli, P. Boylan and Y. Herreman, History of ICOM, 1946–1996 (Paris: International Council of Museums, 1998).

13 The year of MATA/AMAT’s inaugural conference is somewhat controversial. While Baghli, Boylan and Herreman (1998) indicate 1959, Walz and Ciroma name the year 1961. As Ciroma communicates the date to the Man in the section of ‘Shorter Notes,’ I decided to rely on 1961. AMAT is an abbreviation of the same Association in French, Association des Musées d’Afrique Tropicale. See: J. Walz, ‘An interview with Merrick Posnansky,’ The African Archaeological Review, 27, 3 (2010), 177–210; M.L. Ciroma, ‘Formation of the Museums Association of Tropical Africa,’ Man, 61 (1961), pp. 142–3.

14 MAMA was established in 1959 in Kampala thanks to the efforts of M. Posnansky, who brought together museum curators from Western and Central Africa. However, with the idea of expanding the organisation and covering all Tropical Africa, the second meeting was organised in Livingstone, where MATA was launched. See: Walz, 2010; M. Posnansky, ‘Working with J. Desmond Clark,’ in An Archaeologist at Work in African Prehistory and Early Human Studies: Teamwork and Insight, ed. by D.J. Clark (Berkeley: The University of California, 2002), pp. 432–44.

15 Ciroma, 1961, 142.

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17 Baghli, Boylan and Herreman, 1998, 58.

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19 A.S.G. Diop, ‘Museological Activity in African Countries: Its Role and Purpose,’ Museum International, 25, 4 (1973), 252.

20 Arinze, 1998, 32.

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22 See: D. Murphy and C. Vincent, ‘Inside Dakar’s Musée Dynamique: Reflections on Culture and the State in Postcolonial Senegal,’ World Art, 9, 1 (2019), pp. 81–97; W. Fagg, ‘Negro Arts: Preparing for the Dakar Festival,’ Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 114, 5117 (1966), pp. 409–25; P. Cooke, ‘The Art of Africa for the Whole World: An Account of the First World Festival of Negro Arts,’ Negro History Bulletin, 29, 8 (1966), pp. 171–2, 185–6, 189.

23 M.S. M’Bengue, Cultural Policy in Senegal (Paris: UNESCO, 1973), p. 42.

24 D. Murphy, The First World Festival of Negro Arts, Dakar, 1966 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2016), p. 61.

25 B.B. Soares, ‘Defining the Museum: Challenges and Compromises of the 21st Century,’ ICOFOM Study Series, 48, 2 (2020), 18.

26 See: S. Adotevi, ‘Le musée inversion de la vie (le musée dans les systems éducatifs et culturels contemporains),’ 1971, <http://www.minom-icom.net/_old/signud/DOC%20PDF/197100303.pdf> [accessed February 18, 2023]. J.L. Hess, ‘Officials Hope to Expand Role of the World's Museums,’ The New York Times, 1971, September 13 <https://www.nytimes.com/1971/09/13/archives/officials-hope-to-expand-role-of-the-worlds-museums.html> [accessed February 18, 2023].

27 L. Mellado and B.B. Soares, ‘50 Years of the Round Table of Santiago de Chile: Current Key Readings,’ ICOFOM Study Series, 50, 1 (2022), pp. 24–32.

28 M. McLeod, ‘Museums without Collections: Museum Philosophy in West Africa,’ in Museum Studies: An Anthology of Contexts, ed. by B.S. Carbonell (Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012), p. 477.

29 ‘Bienvenue à l’EPA,’ École du Patrimoine Africain <https://www.epa-prema.net> [accessed February 19, 2023].

30 E.H.M. Ndiaye, H. Bocoum, and A.F.C. Holl, ‘Museums and Heritage in West Africa,’ in Cultural Heritage Management in Africa: The Heritage of the Colonized, eds. by G.O> Abungu and W. Ndoro (London: Routledge, 2022), 29–40.

31 As cited in ‘Birth of a Pan-African Organisation of Museums,’ ICOM, <http://archives.icom.museum/releaseafricom2.html> [accessed March 25, 2021].

32 Arinze, 1998, p. 33.

33 E. Eyo, ‘Conventional Museums and the Quest for Relevance in Africa,’ History in Africa, 21 (1994), 325.

34 See: L. Hughes, ‘A Brief Overview of Heritage in Kenya and Africa,’ Museums and Heritage Research Workshop, United States International University, Nairobi, Kenya, July 20–21, 2007, <http://www.open.ac.uk/arts/research/ferguson-centre/projects/managing-heritage/events-21> [accessed April 20, 2021]; A. Ngcobo, ‘The Politics of Representation in South African Museums,’ ICOFOM Study Series, 46 (2018), 147–66; B. Zuma, ‘The Extent to Which South African Museums Surrendered to Political Undertones,’ Museum International, 70, 3–4 (2018), 38–47; G. Abungu, ‘Illicit Trafficking and Destruction of Cultural Property in Africa: A Continent at a Crossroads,’ in Art Crime, ed. by N. Charney (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 240–54.

35 Hughes 2007.

36 R. Pelizzo, Africa at the Crossroads (Milan: Prospero, 2017).

37 A. Gauge, ‘Myths, Censorship, and the Representation of Precolonial History in the Museums of Tropical Africa,’ Museum International, 53, 3 (2001), 26–31.

38 See: R. Laranjeira and I. Laranjeira, ‘Mafalala Walking Tour: Identity and Cultural Immersion at the Core of Maputo City,’ Museum International, 69, 1–2 (2017), 148–55; M. Munyaradzi, ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Empowerment of Local Communities: Manyanga (Ntaba Zi Ka Mambo) Revisited,’ 14^th ICOMOS General Assembly and International Symposium: Place, Memory, Meaning: Preserving Intangible Values in Monuments and Sites, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, October 27–31, 2003, <http://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/521/1/C3-5_-_Munyaradzi.pdf> [accessed April 22, 2021]; C. Rassool, ‘Making the District Six Museum in Cape Town,’ Museum International, 58, 1–2 (2006), 9–18; M. Wazwa, ‘The Fort Jesus Museum in Mombassa: Its Experience regarding Social Networks in Urban and Rural Environments,’ Museum International, 58, 1–2 (2006), 113–9; P. Davis, Eco Museums: A Sense of Place (London: A&C Black, 2011).

39 C. Deliss, ‘Why Africa’s Future Museums Should Forget Western Models,’ The Art Newspaper, January 13, 2020 <https://www.theartnewspaper.com/comment/africa-museum-comment-future-western-models> [accessed April 20, 2021].

40 G. Abungu, ‘“Universal Museums”: New Contestations, New Controversies,’ in Utimut: Past Heritage – Future Partnerships, Discussions on Repatriation in the 21st Century, ed. by M. Gabriel and J. Dahl (Copenhagen: Eks-Skolens Trykkeri, 2008), 32–42.

41 See: ‘Commission Wants Unconditional Return of Stolen Works,’ Vanguard, December 22, 2017, <https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/12/commission-wants-unconditional-return-stolen-works/> [accessed March 27, 2021]; D. Wamugunda, ‘Kenya: Reclaiming Kenyan Art from Foreign Museums,’ Daily Nation, November 25, 2019, <https://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/artculture/reclaiming-Kenyan-art-foreign-museums/1954194-5361436-qni8ka/index.html> [accessed March 29, 2021]; K. Opoku, ‘Nigeria Demands Unconditional Return of Looted Artefacts: A Season of Miracles?’ Pambazuka News, February 8, 2018, <https://www.pambazuka.org/arts-books/nigeria-demands-unconditional-return-looted-artefacts-season-miracles> [accessed March 28, 2021]; ‘Africa Accessioned Project,’ ICME, <http://icme.mini.icom.museum/activities/projects/aa-project/> [accessed April 29, 2021].

42 R. Silverman, P. Probst and G. Abungu, ‘Introduction: Regarding National Museums in Africa,’ in National Museums in Africa: Identity, History and Politics (London and New York: Routledge, 2022), pp. 1–14.

43 Ndiaye, Bocoum and Holl, 2022.

44 G.O. Abungu, N. Ndlovu, F.E.I. Thiombiano, J. Zulu, and S. Varissou, Traditional Management Systems at Heritage Sites in Africa (Midrand: African World Heritage Fund, 2016).

45 See: Rassool, 2006; K. Bekenova, ‘Gunjur Village Museum, The Gambia: Interview with Lamin M. Bojang,’ in In Their Own Voices: Conversations with Emerging African Leaders (Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2019), pp. 17–22; B.H.A.K. Niangao, ‘Burkina Faso: Musées des Communes et Développement,’ ICOFOM Study Series, 50, 1 (2022), 81–9.

46 ‘African Intangible Cultural Heritage,’ UNESCO: Priority Africa <https://ich.unesco.org/en/priority-africa-01247> [accessed February 22, 2023].

47 T.P. Thondhlana, J. Mataga, and D. Munjeri, Independent Museums and Culture Centres in Colonial and Post-Colonial Zimbabwe: Non-State Players, Local Communities, and Self-Representation (London: Routledge, 2022).

48 J. Sandahl, ‘The Challenge of Revising the Museum Definition.’

49 ‘Creating the New Museum Definition: Over 250 Proposals to Check Out!’ ICOM, 1 April 2019 <https://icom.museum/en/news/the-museum-definition-the-backbone-of-icom/> [accessed April 29, 2021].

50 R. Chikukwa, ‘The Fearless Promoter of Zimbabwean Art,’ Culture Trip, January 29, 2016 <https://theculturetrip.com/africa/zimbabwe/articles/interview-with-raphael-chikukwa-the-fearless-promoter-of-zimbabwean-art/> [accessed March 25, 2021].

51 C. Adichie, ‘The Danger of a Single Story,’ TED Conferences, <https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story/c/transcript> [accessed February 25, 2023].

52 ICOM, Annual report 2017 < https://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/2055_ICO-RA-2017-180x270-En-web-page-a-page.pdf> [accessed June 11, 2021], 14.

53 Silverman, Probst and Abungu, ‘Introduction.’

54 According to ICOM Committees’ directory, there are 26 national committees in Africa: Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Ivory Coast, DRC, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, South Africa, Togo, Tunisia, Tanzania, Zambia. However, further research on whether the committees are active or not needs to be done.

55 J. Sandahl, ‘The Museum Definition as the Backbone of ICOM,’ Museum International, 71, 1–2 (2019), vi-9; B.B. Soares, ‘Defining the Museum: Challenges and Compromises of the 21st Century,’ ICOFOM Study Series, 48, 2 (2020), 16–32.

56 G. Abungu, ‘New Developments in African Museums - a Trend of the 21st Century,’ ICOM Study Series <https://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Study_Series6_Regional_Abungu.pdf> [accessed April 28, 2021].

57 F. Sarr and B. Savoy, The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: Toward a New Relational Ethics, trans. D.S. Burk, 2018 <http://restitutionreport2018.com/sarr_savoy_en.pdf> [accessed March 27, 2021], 54.

58 A. Etges and D. Dean, ‘The International Council of Museums and the Controversy about a New Museum Definition – A Conversation with Lauran Bonilla-Merchav, Bruno Brulon Soares, Lonnie G. Bunch III, Bernice Murphy, and Michèle Rivet,’ International Public History, 5, 1 (2022), 19–27 <https://doi.org/10.1515/iph-2022-2039> [accessed February 25, 2023].

59 ‘Museum definition’, ICOM, <https://icom.museum/en/resources/standards-guidelines/museum-definition/> [accessed February 11, 2023].

60 There were three representatives in the committee: Chedlia Annabi, curator at the Carthage Museum, Tunisia, Muthoni Thangwa, development manager at the National Museums of Kenya, and Beverley Thomas, director of Amazwi South African Museum of Literature.

61 ICOM Define, The Museum: Report on the ICOM Member Feedback for a New Museum Definition, 2021, <https://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ICOM-Define-Consultation-2-Results-Report-vf-ENGLISH-180821OK.pdf> [accessed February 20, 2023].

62 F. Mairesse, ‘The Definition of the Museum: History and Issues,’ Museum International, 71, 1–2 (2019), 152–9.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Kristina Bekenova

Kristina Bekenova is a Ph.D. student at IMT School of Advanced Studies Lucca, Lucca. Before this position, she was a research assistant on the ‘European Leadership in Cultural, Science and Innovation Diplomacy’ (Horizon 2020, 693799) and a correspondent for African Politics and Policy. Her research interests include cultural heritage, history of museums, and cultural diplomacy.