Trammelled stars: the non-autonomy of female K-pop idols

ABSTRACT

South Korea is well known for its industrialist approach to the creation of idol groups. This article demonstrates the correlation between exploitive managerial practices, widely employed in the production of idols, and their resultant effects on individual autonomy. We first situate the agency-idol system in Korea’s contemporary neoliberal landscape, before proceeding to outline how the recruitment and training of female performers deliberately fosters dependence. Next, we illustrate how bodily shaping — in the form of weight loss and plastic surgery — and objectification serve to delimit personal autonomy. Exacting beauty standards, in turn, contribute to the imposition of highly restrictive somatic identities, affording idols little to no room for agentic experimentation. Increased dependency, in conjunction with the forced assumption of dollified personas, amounts to an effective reduction in autonomous capacity, re-enforcing the notion that K-pop is a site of patriarchal disciplining.

KEYWORDS:

• K-pop
• non-autonomy
• female idols
• dependency
• identity

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1. The Ministry of Culture estimated BTS’s chart-topping single ‘Dynamite’ would generate 1.7 trillion won (1.96 billion USD) for the Korean economy alone.

2. The need to formulate autonomy as an acquired capacity has also been voiced by Pauen and Welzer (2015, pp. 21–26). York (2013, p. 1339), drawing on Moran (2000), interprets autonomy as ‘situated agency,’ contending self-sovereignty might be exercised even in the face of social constraints.

3. This is despite the fact idol groups typically contribute to Korea’s economic growth indirectly, either through attracting tourists or endorsing consumer products. See Kim (2019, pp. 8–9); Turnbell (2017).

4. The origins of the total management strategy lie with Lee Soo Mann, founder of SM Entertainment. After establishing SM in 1989, Lee’s first successful act found himself embroiled in a drugs scandal, flatlining his career. The experience taught Lee the value of total control, even when it came to managing the personal lives of his performers. See Seabrook (2016, pp. 151–152).

5. Choi and Maliangkay (2015, p. 5) have described television as a ‘colony genre’ of K-pop, with idols being a standard feature of many talk, game and quiz shows. Networks are increasingly reliant on entertainment companies furnishing them with idols to maintain ratings. This is not to say, however, that television is entirely beholden to K-pop. For unestablished idol groups, guest appearances or live performances on major channels are essential for reaching a wider audience. See Kim (2018, p. 56).

6. EunB was pronounced dead at the scene, while RiSe, having slipped into a coma, died four days later from her injuries. The three other band members sustained only minor abrasions, though psychological trauma should not be discounted.

7. Accompanying Korea’s myriad economic changes came societal reformulations of the female body. As a post-industrial nation, Korean women increasingly function as ‘consumer bodies,’ or rather individuals who are chiefly valued for their spending power. Consequently, women and girls are no longer just workers, but entities suitable for advertising the ‘emblems of capitalist consumption.’ See Kim (2003, pp. 97–98).

8. Park (2013, p. 28) has termed this process ‘globalisation-localisation-globalisation,’ highlighting the fact entertainment agencies recruit foreign songwriters to produce music for natively trained idols, that is in turn marketed internationally.

9. Not all hagwons cater for idol hopefuls, with the majority being equivalent to cram schools where students receive extra tuition in academic subjects. The young age of students enrolled in performance-centric training academies is not exceptional. A recent survey found that 83% of Korean five-year-olds were sent to some form of hagwon. See Se-hwan (2017).

10. The Korean Fair Trade Commission’s investigation came about in response to three members of the boyband TVXQ (Dong Bang Shin Ki) filing a legal complaint against SM. The plaintiffs argued their thirteen-year contract was too restrictive, and awarded them only a fraction of the profits they generated for the company. The Seoul Central District Court ruled in their favour, warranting industry-wide changes. See Howard (2017, p. 107); Lee (2013, pp. 557–558).

11. The Korean music industry is far from alone in deliberately nurturing non-autonomy. Child stars elsewhere undergo similar conditioning, see O’Connor and Mercer (2017).

12. Whiteness occupies a conspicuous place in Korean stardom, being of especial importance to female idols. The term mibaek 미백 encapsulates the practice of cultivating ‘bright, immaculate, and glowing skin’ (Park and Hong 2021, p. 300).

13. Being slim in Korea is not merely an issue of looks, but social morality. As Kim (2014, p. 294) makes clear ‘thinness, for Koreans, is rather perceived as a symbol that exhibits positive personal qualities and helps people survive in a competitive society.’ Consequently, slenderness is approximated with the wider stereotypes of wealth, beauty and popularity.

14. Needless to say, Stellar’s ‘Marionette’ is by no means unique in its flagrant objectification of idols. One could cite numerous examples of dehumanisation in Korean music videos from the mid 2010s. Orange Caramel’s 2014 single ‘Catallena,’ for instance, presents the three-member girl group as different types of sushi. Set down on beds of rice, scantily clad and legs akimbo, the idols are, quite literally, ferried along conveyer belts to be eaten and enjoyed by male customers.

15. For the commodification of female empowerment in Europe and the United States, see Gill (2008) and Rottenberg (2018).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Laurie Venters

Laurie Venters is a PhD student at the University of Bonn, exploring the interrelation of dependency and gender in both historical and contemporary societies. His doctoral project focuses on the sexual agency of female slaves in the ancient world, drawing comparisons between the Roman Empire and Han China.

Alexander Rothenberg

Alexander Rothenberg is a PhD student at the University of Bonn, researching forms of strong asymmetric dependancy in the contemporary sports and entertainment industry. His doctoral project situates the trading and training of football players in the matrix of capitalist labour exploitation.