ABSTRACT
This article focusses on how the Smithsonian Institution’s staff and programmes are adapting in response to an evolving world and increasing requests for assistance. The Smithsonian is the world’s largest museum, education and research complex, with long-standing programmes focussed on capacity building in times of need. Central to this work is communication—listening, building trust among collaborators and prioritising cultural heritage communities in decision-making. This article highlights four activities currently helping to strengthen cultural resources and support colleagues in times of crisis: building on early experiences to inform and improve on-the-ground cultural rescue efforts domestically and abroad; learning to build local and government relationships impacting conservation efforts abroad; creating new heritage anti-trafficking courses for law enforcement that reflect current events and include the voices of in-country experts; and building networks of expertise to develop and implement a new institution-wide Shared Stewardship and Ethical Returns Policy. The common thread throughout these four programmes, each with different goals, is the importance of communication and collaboration.
Résumé
« Innovation et adaptation à la Smithsonian Institution en réponse aux évolutions de notre époque et à l’accroissement des besoins »
Cet article se concentre sur la manière dont le personnel et les programmes de la Smithsonian Institution s'adaptent en réponse à un monde en évolution et à des demandes d'assistance croissantes. Le Smithsonian est le plus grand complexe muséal, éducatif et de recherche au monde, avec des programmes de longue durée axés sur le développement des capacités nécessaires. Au cœur de ce travail se trouve la communication—écouter, établir la confiance entre les collaborateurs et donner la priorité aux collectivités en charge du patrimoine culturel dans la prise de décision. Cet article met en lumière quatre activités qui contribuent actuellement à renforcer les ressources culturelles et à soutenir les collègues en temps de crise: s'appuyer sur les premières expériences pour informer et améliorer les efforts de sauvetage culturel sur le terrain national et à l'étranger; apprendre à établir des relations locales et gouvernementales ayant un impact sur les efforts de conservation à l'étranger; créer de nouveaux cours pour lutter contre le trafic du patrimoine dans le respect des lois, reflétant les événements actuels et incluant les voix d'experts nationaux; et la création de réseaux d'expertise pour élaborer et mettre en œuvre une nouvelle politique de gestion partagée et de retours éthiques à l'échelle de l'établissement. L’importance de la communication et de la collaboration est le fil conducteur de ces quatre programmes.
Zusammenfassung
„Innovation und Anpassung in der Smithsonian Institution als Reaktion auf Veränderungen und erhöhten Bedarf“
Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit der Frage, wie sich die Mitarbeitenden und Programme der Smithsonian Institution an eine sich verändernde Welt und zunehmende Hilfsanfragen anpassen. Die Smithsonian Institution ist der weltweit größte Museums-, Bildungs- und Forschungskomplex mit langjährigen Programmen, die sich auf den Aufbau von Kapazitäten in Krisenzeiten konzentrieren. Im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit steht die Kommunikation—das Zuhören, der Aufbau von Vertrauen zwischen den Mitarbeitenden und die Berücksichtigung des kulturellen Erbes bei der Entscheidungsfindung. In diesem Artikel werden vier Aktivitäten hervorgehoben, die derzeit dazu beitragen, die kulturellen Ressourcen zu stärken und die Kolleg*innen in Krisenzeiten zu unterstützen. Erstens: die Optimierung der vor Ort stattfindenden Rettungsbemühungen für Kulturgut im In-und Ausland aufbauend auf früheren Erfahrungen zu evaluieren und zu fördern. Zweitens: die Fähigkeit zu erweitern lokale Netzwerke und Netzwerke mit Regierungsbeteiligung, die die Restaurierungsbemühungen im Ausland unterstützen, auszubauen. Drittens: neue Kurse zur Bekämpfung des illegalen Handels mit Kulturgut für die Strafverfolgungsbehörden in Zusammenarbeit mit Experten vor Ort und unter Berücksichtigung der aktuellen Ereignisse aufzustellen; sowie viertens: Expertennetzwerke zur Entwicklung und Umsetzung neuer institutionsweiter Richtlinien für gemeinsame Verantwortung und ethische Restitution aufzubauen. Der gemeinsame Nenner dieser vier Programme, die jeweils unterschiedliche Ziele verfolgen, ist die hohe Wichtigkeit von Kommunikation und Zusammenarbeit.
Resumen
“Innovación y adaptación en respuesta a épocas de cambio y a un aumento de necesidades en la Institución Smithsoniana”
Este artículo se centra en cómo el personal y los programas de la Institución Smithsoniana se están adaptando y respondiendo a un mundo en evolución y al aumento de peticiones de asistencia. La Institución Smithsoniana es el mayor complejo museístico, educativo y de investigación del mundo con programas centrados en capacitación en tiempos de necesidad desde hace mucho tiempo. Para esto es fundamental la comunicación: escuchar, generar confianza entre los colaboradores y dar prioridad al patrimonio cultural de las comunidades en la toma de decisiones. En este artículo se destacan cuatro actividades que actualmente contribuyen a reforzar los recursos culturales y apoyar a los colegas en tiempos de crisis: el aprovechamiento de las experiencias iniciales para evaluar y mejorar las labores de rescate cultural sobre terreno en el país y en el extranjero; el aprender a establecer relaciones locales y gubernamentales que repercutan en las labores de conservación en el extranjero; la creación de nuevos cursos sobre la lucha contra el tráfico de patrimonio para las fuerzas del orden que reflejen la actualidad e incluyan las opiniones de expertos del país; y la creación de redes de expertos para elaborar y aplicar una nueva Política de Retorno Ético y Custodia Compartida en toda la institución. El eje común de estos cuatro programas, cada uno con objetivos diferentes, es la importancia de la comunicación y la colaboración.
摘要
“顺应时代需求——史密森学会的创新和调整”
本文重点介绍了史密森学会为应对不断变化的世界和日益增加的支援请求，对其员工和项目进行的调整工作。史密森学会是世界上最大的博物馆、教育和研究综合机构，其长期项目的重点为构建应时代所需的能力，而工作的核心是沟通与倾听，在合作者间建立信任，并在决策中优先考虑文化遗产社群。本文重点介绍了目前有助于强化文化资源和于危机时刻支援同事的四项活动：以早期经验为基础，为国内外的实地文化抢救工作提供信息并加以改进；学习如何建立影响海外保护工作的地方和政府关系；就近期事件反馈，并吸纳国内专家意见，为执法部门开设全新遗产反走私课程；以及建立专业知识网络，以制定和实施新的全学会共享管理和道德返还政策。虽然这四个项目的目标各不相同，但其共同点是沟通与合作的重要性。
Introduction
The Smithsonian InstitutionFootnote1 is the world’s largest museum, education and research complex, comprising 21 museums, the National Zoo, and some of the world’s foremost research centres in science, the arts and the humanities. Through collaborations with affiliated museums and colleagues at museums and research institutions around the world, the Smithsonian has built long-standing programmes focussed on capacity building and response for cultural heritage in crisis. Central to this work is consultation and communication—building trust among collaborators, listening and putting the needs of cultural heritage communities first in our decision-making. This article highlights how Smithsonian staff and programmes work to change and innovate in response to an evolving world and increasing requests for assistance, by focussing on a handful of the many activities underway to help strengthen cultural resource response, preservation and stewardship. The authors hope this article is useful to colleagues facing decision-making and planning for cultural heritage preservation in uncertain times.
Smithsonian cultural rescue initiative: how early experiences informed and improved our on-the-ground cultural rescue efforts at home and abroad
On 12 January 2010, a catastrophic 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti. By some estimates, as many as 300,000 people died and hundreds of thousands were left homeless. Buildings were levelled, national infrastructure was critically damaged or destroyed, and Haiti’s cultural heritage was buried in the rubble.
In the following days and weeks, the Smithsonian and the rest of the world witnessed Haiti’s tireless resolve, but also the very real needs of Haitian colleagues and their communities. The Smithsonian wanted to help. At the request of the Haitian Ministry of Culture and alongside determined partners from the United States Agency for International Development, the President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities, the American Institute for Conservation’s Cultural Emergency Response Team, the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the US Committee of the Blue Shield and many others, the Smithsonian created the Haiti Cultural Recovery Project. The team rented a compound that formerly housed the UN Development Program in Port-au-Prince and installed conservation labs and studios. They hired more than 30 local staff and supported a series of short-term deployments for some 140 Smithsonian conservators, curators and other experts. Over 2 years, the project treated, stabilised and re-housed more than 35,000 artworks, artifacts, rare books and archives, and provided basic conservation and collection management training for more than 150 Haitian colleagues.Footnote2
The Haiti Cultural Recovery Project made clear that a gap existed in international disaster relief, and something needed to be done to both protect cultural heritage before disasters and help rescue it after them. The Smithsonian created the Smithsonian Cultural Rescue Initiative (SCRI), whose mission is to protect cultural heritage threatened or impacted by disasters and to help US and international communities preserve their identities and history.Footnote3 Soon after its establishment, SCRI began building its capacity, leveraging the breadth and depth of Smithsonian resources to formalise relationships built during prior disasters and turn colleagues into partners.
In the decade since its formation, SCRI has responded to dozens of disasters that threatened or impacted cultural heritage. Working with local practitioners at their invitation and guided by their decisions and priorities, SCRI has helped international and US communities preserve their identities and history—in Mali, Egypt, Nepal, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Texas, Florida, South Carolina, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands and more. With every event, SCRI’s response network, and thereby capabilities, grow. As SCRI’s network of response-ready heritage professionals expands, so too does the network’s ability to respond to future events. Adding to this continuously expanding association of responders are participants from international training programmes and colleagues in the US government, military and academic communities.
At home, SCRI co-chairs the Heritage Emergency National Task Force with the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Together, this public–private partnership activates a network of more than 70 federal agencies and private nonprofit national service organisations to better protect cultural heritage in the USA’s states, tribal sovereign areas and territories.Footnote4 As part of the Smithsonian, SCRI also participates alongside 15 other US government agencies on the Cultural Heritage Coordinating Committee (CHCC). Established by the US Department of State in 2016 pursuant to the Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act, the CHCC coordinates diplomatic and law enforcement efforts to combat antiquities trafficking, disrupt trafficking networks, and protect against the looting and destruction of cultural property around the world.Footnote5
SCRI also partners with university- and museum-based researchers at institutions across the country to better understand and respond to cultural heritage at risk. Aided by this academic community, SCRI’s research has helped develop datasets to document and quantify the destruction of cultural heritage, convened symposia to better understand risk factors to cultural heritage in emergencies and published scholarly articles discussing topics such as emergency response, forensic documentation and heritage in conflict. Most recently, SCRI teamed up with the Cultural Heritage Monitoring Lab (CHML) at the Virginia Museum of Natural History to use satellite technology to monitor cultural heritage destruction around the world.Footnote6 The ability to remotely observe and document heritage sites at risk provides opportunities for faster response interventions as well as documentary evidence for future missions.
Engaging on a more person-to-person level, SCRI helped develop an international network of training participants that spans the globe. Together with the Netherlands-based Prince Claus Fund and Cultural Emergency Response (CER), along with ICCROM, SCRI has trained dozens of professional cultural first responders how to safeguard cultural heritage in an emergency. In its latest and more advanced iteration, SCRI now offers the annual Leadership for Cultural Heritage Stewards in Challenging Circumstances course in which people who guide heritage work in their local communities develop their leadership skills alongside a cohort of heritage stewards facing similar challenges.Footnote7 Alumni from these programmes remain engaged and connected to the international cultural disaster response network and many have taken up key roles in large-scale response actions in, among others, Syria, Afghanistan, Lebanon and Ukraine.
While this type of training is groundbreaking, SCRI has also created a training that follows closely in the legacy of the allied powers WWII Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives Teams (MFAA), a group of curators, art historians, archivists and heritage specialists tasked with protecting Europe’s greatest treasures. In 2019, SCRI partnered with US Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne), the division from where the original US members of MFAA were assigned, to plan and deliver the Army Monuments Officer Training (AMOT) course for the first new cohort of Civil Affairs Monuments Officers since WWII.Footnote8 Training includes information about the 1954 Hague Convention along with hands-on skills for cultural heritage emergency response. The AMOT course brings together US military and international officers to learn and coordinate on best practices for cultural property protection and how to integrate it into military planning and decision-making. In 2022, the inaugural 10-day training culminated in the swearing in of the newest 38G/6 V Heritage and Preservation Specialist Army Reserve Officers, bringing a renewed capability to the US Armed Forces ().
Fig. 1 38G/6 V Heritage and Preservation Specialist Army Reserve Officers being sworn in. Image courtesy of the Smithsonian Cultural Rescue Initiative.
These partner networks in the US and abroad provide an unmatched capability for collaboration and cross-referencing of information and resources, key components in any cultural response activity. By engaging a community of practitioners across disciplines and settings, SCRI can amplify its expertise and experience, affording it the ability to respond in almost any disaster situation. SCRI regularly seeks feedback from its network to help improve future response efforts, including what to do differently or more effectively to be a strong and supportive partner to local efforts and organisations. Beginning in February 2022, when Russia launched its full-scale invasion of Ukraine, SCRI mobilised each of these vital networks in the battle to save Ukrainian heritage.
As the first requests for cultural assistance came in from partners and practitioners in Ukraine, SCRI galvanised the resources of the entire Smithsonian and assembled teams of experts to advise Ukrainian cultural stewards as they took emergency measures to protect their collections. Over a series of Zoom calls, often with Ukrainian colleagues in bomb shelters or suffering power outages, staff from the Smithsonian’s Museum Conservation Institute (MCI), the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the National Museum of Asian Art, and the Smithsonian Libraries and Archives provided technical advice for packing items for transportation to safe storage locations, protecting objects in situ, and prioritising and evacuating collections to off-site locations. Smithsonian conservators and collections specialists also helped suggest alternative materials for safely handling and transporting objects and ways to regulate and monitor temperature and humidity in storage areas.
While Ukrainian heritage stewards took measures to protect their collections in country, SCRI convened its research partners to remotely gather evidence of cultural heritage damage in Ukraine using a combination of satellite imagery analysis and open-source research. The team of experts at SCRI and its partners at CHML had been monitoring changes to heritage sites in Eastern Ukraine since April 2021. With the full-scale invasion, the work expanded to create a database of 28,000 cultural heritage sites from all across the country. After teaming up with the University of Pennsylvania Cultural Heritage Center and the University of Maryland’s Center for International Development and Conflict Management (CIDCM), they quickly began identifying thousands of potential impacts to cultural heritage sites and later began confirming them with assistance from Ukrainian heritage teams on the ground. Reports and findings are regularly published through the US Department of State-sponsored Conflict Observatory, a central public facing hub to capture, analyse and make widely available evidence of Russia-perpetrated war crimes and other atrocities in Ukraine.Footnote9
International networks have been critical lifelines during the conflict and SCRI joined efforts with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas (ALIPH), Blue Shield International and others to aid colleagues in Ukraine. SCRI quickly linked up with our partner in the Netherlands, CER, to support the newly formed Ukrainian Heritage Emergency Response Initiative (HERI).Footnote10 Co-founded by Ihor Poshyvailo, a former Smithsonian Fulbright Scholar and international first aid for culture trainee, and Vasyl Rozhko, director at the Ukrainian State Historic-Cultural Preserve Tustan and former Head of the Museum Department in the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture, HERI immediately set out to assist cultural institutions in need. These determined professionals were the first to take measures to preserve heritage across Ukraine, delivering supplies and materials for packing and offering advice and assistance for evacuation and storage. In a matter of months, HERI helped build a national infrastructure to stabilise and protect heritage, conduct salvage and rescue missions, and document crimes against cultural heritage.
While established relationships are often SCRI’s footholds into a disaster scenario, newly formed relationships continuously broaden our capacity. Building on a shared commitment to helping Ukraine, SCRI teamed up with the Polish American Kosciuszko Foundation, based in Warsaw, Poland. This partnership has already dispatched supplies and equipment, including generators, portable shelving and battery-powered lights, to museums across the border in Ukraine. SCRI also linked into the Interagency Working Group on Scientific Collections, co-chaired by the Smithsonian and operating under the auspices of the White House National Science and Technology Council.Footnote11 Through its network of US government agencies, scientists around the world were able to help solicit the status and needs of more than 80 Ukrainian archival, cultural and scientific collections, including herbarium, taxidermy, germplasm and other diverse collections, mostly biological, many important to agriculture. Where possible, SCRI then sent supplies directly to organisations via HERI or the Kosciuszko Foundation ().
Fig. 2 Delivery of equipment to a museum in Lviv. Image courtesy of The Kosciuszko Foundation.
As a testament to the power of networks, on 9 February 2023, at the first International Forum, ‘War in Ukraine: The Battle for Culture’—organised by HERI in conjunction with the National Museum of the Revolution of Dignity (Maidan Museum) and the Ministry of Culture and Information Policy of Ukraine—Poshyvailo said:
‘For almost a year, foreign governments, international institutions, and organizations have been closely cooperating with Ukrainian state bodies, cultural institutions, experts, and volunteers. We’ve been given protective equipment, financial and humanitarian aid, and held many meetings. The scale of support is truly fascinating, and we are deeply thankful for it. … All of these efforts are for the sake of one goal, the preservation of cultural heritage during the war, the development of means of emergency response, supporting workers and cultural institutions, bringing the aggressor country to justice, and promoting the sustainable development of Ukrainian culture.’Footnote12
Conservation training abroad: successes, challenges and changes for the Smithsonian Institution’s work in Iraq
In 2015, the Smithsonian began collaborating with the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage (Iraqi Institute).Footnote13 The Iraqi Institute was initiated as part of the Iraq Cultural Heritage Project (ICHP), a broad suite of activities funded by the US federal government in 2008. The ICHP was designed to support the continued recovery of the Iraq Museum in Baghdad after it was looted in 2003 and to give support to the country’s academic and professional archaeological community. Initiated under the ICHP as an unnamed 18-month training initiative, the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage was formally founded after the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) provided a facility and funding to establish a permanent home for the Institute in Erbil, in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.Footnote14 The Iraqi Institute has since served as a base for multiple US-led programmes and supported training initiatives from other countries and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The Smithsonian’s work in Iraq has been a collaboration between MCI, the Smithsonian’s Office of International Relations (OIR) and SCRI, with other internal units such as the National Museum of Asian Art participating in more recent projects.
Iraqi institutions and individuals suffered greatly under decades of sanctions and war,Footnote15 and collaboration with Iraqi partners is the cornerstone of the successful development and implementation of the Smithsonian’s educational and partnership programmes. The work in Iraq is focussed on capacity building for government heritage professionals,Footnote16 and the Smithsonian works with the national and provincial offices of the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) and the provincial offices of the KRG.
The disruptions to the heritage sector caused by decades of sanctions and war meant that opportunities have been limited.Footnote17 Many of the government heritage professionals who attend programmes at the Iraq Institute have just basic computer skills and research abilities and arrive with an incomplete understanding of international-standard heritage preservation practice. Smithsonian staff continuously adapt their capacity-building programmes to focus on in-country, practical education that leaves participants with technical skills that can be used immediately in their work upon completion of a programme at the Institute. For example, projects experienced by participants could include hands-on practice in how to make museum mounts or practical experience giving presentations to share newly learned information with their colleagues ().
Fig. 3 Capacity-building programmes at the Iraqi Institute are designed to be hands-on and practical. Here students practise documentation and analysis skills for historic buildings at the Erbil Citadel. Image courtesy of the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage.
The Smithsonian regularly consults with heritage staff and leadership of the SBAH and KRG offices as part of programme development and plans all efforts with ‘Master Trainers’ (local teaching assistants) at the Iraqi Institute who also work within governmental offices of the SBAH and KRG. These partnerships are used as a framework to improve content based on participant capabilities and used to seek post-course feedback from participants and instructors alike (). Using these experiences and inputs, staff review and improve the coursework over time. This continuous improvement process is firmly rooted in in-person collaboration. The onset of COVID required the Smithsonian and other institutions to rethink what could be accomplished using virtual platforms for both course development and implementation.
Fig. 4 The Smithsonian utilises a collaborative model where Iraqi and international professionals work together to build sustainable capacity for the Iraqi heritage management field. Here an Institute Master Trainer learns hands-on conservation techniques using a mock object from Kent Severson, a US-based conservator in private practice. Image courtesy of the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage.
Earlier scholarly publications document the work of the Smithsonian and others in Iraq;Footnote18 the focus in this article is on more recent projects, and the changes and alternatives developed for those programmes in response to the pandemic.
The Smithsonian paused two on-site programmes at the Iraqi Institute in response to the COVID-19 global lockdown in late February 2020. The first, funded by the US Department of State, was a workshop focussed on training Iraqis to conduct local museum assessments to analyse operations and collections care and suggest improvements. A 2-week, in-person effort planned for early 2020 was replaced by a 3-month series of remote conversations later that year. Over Zoom, course instructors met with ‘students’—the Director and Master Trainers of the Iraqi Institute—to agree to a work schedule, field visits and work products. This connection was facilitated by pre-existing, trust-based relationships among the instructors and the students, all of whom had worked together multiple times at the Iraqi Institute in the past. Instructors shared training information early enough for translation in advance of virtual sessions, followed by regular Zoom meetings to review the materials. The students conducted a practice assessment at the local Syriac Heritage Museum, discussed their results over Zoom, adjusted their efforts based on feedback, and submitted a final report and presentation to the instructors. While the project took much longer than the originally planned 2 weeks, the total amount of hourly effort was likely similar. The students learned the assessment protocol well enough to apply it to another museum in Erbil a year later.
The second programme affected by the lockdown was an in-person training course funded by the Getty Foundation, Fundamentals in Heritage Conservation. The 12-student cohort from across Iraq completed the first 8 weeks of the course at the Iraqi Institute in late 2019; the pandemic and resulting travel restrictions (domestically and internationally) led to postponing the second part of the course—a month at a time—from February until May 2020. Concerned that the pandemic could delay the course indefinitely, the Smithsonian units working in Iraq held internal discussions about transitioning to an online format for the course and consulted with several US- and internationally-based heritage practitioners already teaching online. The results of these discussions produced mixed reviews about the efficacy of such efforts and suggested caution, so the decision was made to begin with shifting a single course online to provide a ‘proof of concept’. The local office of Amideast, an international NGO, delivered an English course from July through mid-September 2020 to test the online shift. Students were initially expected to work as a group, all using the NGO’s online Learning Management System (LMS) at the same time to retain their cohort developed in person at the Institute. Students were challenged by the LMS (a relatively new concept in Iraq at the time), compounded by a lack of computers and consistent electricity in the homes of most students, despite individual support from the NGO. These challenges were further exacerbated by the geographically dispersed nature of the cohort and the larger number of students compared to the smaller museum assessment group. By the end of a 10-week programme, the NGO shifted the course to individually paced learning, and adjusted the LMS for access by mobile phone. Despite these changes, only half of the cohort completed the course. An after-action report from the NGO and interviews with some students confirmed that the new approach was unsuccessful.
From this experience, the Smithsonian discarded the idea of holding in-depth training courses online, especially in situations with a dispersed cohort lacking many of the basic requirements to connect. Instead, the project funder was petitioned to approve a different type of online effort: adapting some of the introductory information from the Fundamentals course into a series of YouTube videos.Footnote19 While in no way intended to replace the on-site training programme, the videos are instead an introduction to cultural heritage conservation concepts to share across Iraq. Perhaps most importantly is the availability of all videos in English, Arabic and Kurdish, ensuring the broadest access and distribution. Drawing on a lesson learnt from the LMS experience at the Iraqi Institute, YouTube was chosen as an accessible platform given that Iraqi students were lacking computer access and were more able to connect to the internet via personal phones with YouTube being a mobile-friendly platform.Footnote20 The Smithsonian recently posted the videos to the Iraqi Institute’s YouTube channel and is working with the Institute to both publicise the series and to capture feedback from its users.
The Smithsonian is also partnering with the Iraq Museum to create and build an online exhibition highlighting some of the most notable objects in their collection. Originally coming as a request from the US Embassy in Iraq, the Smithsonian ensured that Iraqi partners at the Museum were interested in the project before finalising the project proposal with the Embassy. Initiated in October 2021, MCI and OIR designed the project to allow its virtual implementation and fostered a collaborative process of development via weekly Zoom calls and communication in between with all the stakeholders involved. The first milestone of the project focussed on the creation of an ‘Interpretive Master Plan’ outlining the goals of the online exhibit. Smithsonian staff are currently working with Iraqi colleagues to collect information on selected objects and consider the stories the Iraqi and US team wish to tell in the exhibition. As with all Smithsonian projects, capacity building is designed into the project; Zoom calls include regular informational discussions between Iraqi and Smithsonian staff, in particular with curators from the National Museum of Asian Art discussing how exhibits are developed at their museum. The Smithsonian will also work with the Iraqi Institute to develop courses in anticipation of returning to in-person instruction, including exhibit photography, advanced object documentation and website management. These courses are intended to ensure suitable imagery is available for the exhibition and that Iraqi colleagues can maintain and develop the exhibition after the project is completed.
The projects in Iraq are designed with the same focus as other projects at the Smithsonian—in collaboration with colleagues and responding to their interests and needs, but with the ability to respond and adapt to the shifting needs of a variety of stakeholders at various levels in the cultural heritage sector. In accordance with the other examples in this article, the capacity-building efforts in Iraq have only succeeded because of sustained, long-term engagement with partners who have an equal role in the project planning and an investment in the outcomes. This approach engenders and builds the trust necessary to succeed. Staff at the Smithsonian have seen during their tenure in Iraq that too frequently short-term initiatives without any larger framework built on trust and time tend to ignore the needs of the Iraqis and have little effect on cultural heritage conservation overall and waste money. This is not stating anything new,Footnote21 however the Smithsonian’s practical experience in Iraq shows that it takes powerful commitment by multiple institutions to keep this kind of capacity-building experience afloat. Perhaps these shared experiences can help others develop more effective projects and programmes in the future.
Cultural heritage anti-trafficking training for law enforcement
For more than a decade, the staff of the Smithsonian’s Museum Conservation InstituteFootnote22 have worked with colleagues across the Institution to organise training workshops for the federal law enforcement personnel working to protect material culture from around the world. When the pandemic paused in-person training, an online workshop series was created to better reflect real-time crises, expand audiences, include the voices and priorities of in-country experts, and build academic and governmental response networks.
Established in 1965 as the Conservation Research Laboratory (later names include the Conservation Analytical Laboratory, and the Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education), MCI is the centre for specialised technical collections research and conservation for all Smithsonian museums and collections. As the only Smithsonian resource for technical studies and scientific analyses for most of the Institution’s national collections, MCI staff provide support for the most difficult collection and object care issues and combine their knowledge of materials with state-of-the-art instrumentation and scientific techniques to provide technical research studies and interpretation of artistic, anthropological, biological and historical objects. Through a range of Conservation and Cultural Heritage Protection Programs,Footnote23 MCI staff efforts provide education and technical assistance for the protection of cultural heritage world-wide to help improve the stewardship of cultural heritage and support US agencies and the museum community in identifying illicitly trafficked cultural heritage artifacts and objects.Footnote24
Since 2009, MCI staff, in coordination with colleagues at OIR,Footnote25 have organised cultural heritage training workshops for the US Department of Homeland Security’s investigative and customs personnel. The Preventing Trafficking, Protecting Cultural Heritage workshops are supported by the US Department of State’s Cultural Antiquities Task Force (CATF), a working group of the CHCC managed by the State Department’s Cultural Heritage Center.Footnote26 The six federal agency members of the CATF share a common mission to combat trafficking in antiquities in the United States and abroad. Hosted by MCI in collaboration with CATF and Homeland Security Investigations’ Cultural Property, Art and Antiquities Program (CPAA),Footnote27 the Preventing Trafficking workshops are one of the many ways that the Smithsonian Institution works with federal agencies to combat the trafficking of illicit or looted archaeological artifacts, fine arts and other cultural heritage materials. Smithsonian staff and collections are a key resource for other federal agencies—through these workshops, nearly 400 law enforcement officials from more than 100 domestic and international locations have worked with collections and experts from across the Smithsonian, learning about the material composition and physical needs of various objects while building relationships with specialists that can provide assessment and advice on individual artifacts ( and ). In-person attendance by participants is a requirement of these introductory workshops, and enrolment is limited; MCI staff collaborate with colleagues across the Institution, utilising the Smithsonian’s collections and expertise to assist federal agencies in their work to protect and preserve national and global material culture. Other Smithsonian museums and research centres that regularly contribute to this training include the National Museum of the American Indian, the National Museum of Asian Art and the National Museum of Natural History.Footnote28
Fig. 5 In February 2020, the US Department of State’s Cultural Antiquities Task Force (CATF) and the Smithsonian Institution held its 17th annual training programme for US federal law enforcement personnel. In these images, attendees work with Smithsonian collections to practise documentation, handling and photography of cultural heritage objects. Images courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.
Fig. 6 In February 2020, the US Department of State’s Cultural Antiquities Task Force (CATF) and the Smithsonian Institution held its 17th annual training programme for US federal law enforcement personnel. In these images, attendees work with Smithsonian collections to practise documentation, handling and photography of cultural heritage objects. Images courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.
In-person training at the Smithsonian was paused in March 2020 in response to the world-wide pandemic. The introductory classes for law enforcement rely on direct interaction with collections and subject matter experts (SMEs), and the Preventing Trafficking workshops were likewise put on hold. Staff from the workshop organising partners (MCI, CATF, CPAA) used the initial weeks of the pandemic to gather feedback from previous course participants, and to organise an online refresher workshop to support personnel working cultural heritage cases. As the pause on in-person activities continued, CATF asked MCI staff to think about additional workshops that could be held online. One previous workshop seemed a good fit for conversion to an online format: before the pandemic, MCI had welcomed SMEs and experienced law enforcement personnel to Washington, DC for a 2-day workshop on cuneiform tablets;Footnote29 the narrow focus and in-depth discussions were well received, but the limited availability of attendees made it difficult to plan future events. The widespread use of online platforms during the pandemic created an opportunity to revisit this training model.
MCI staff met with the organising partners and proposed a new series of online workshops for personnel with existing cultural heritage casework experience.Footnote30 The workshop series could be nimble and inclusive—the shorter planning period for online events meant organisers could tailor workshops to highlight cultural heritage in regions of conflict or natural disaster, including regions or materials seeing spikes in trafficking; the online format could provide training to US law enforcement stationed around the world, and include presentations by in-country experts from the regions of focus. The new workshop series was also designed to benefit participants and organising partners alike—to provide law enforcement personnel with accessible and specialised training on timely topics, and help connect with SMEs; to provide foreign experts with opportunities to communicate on-the-ground information about trafficking routes and objects, and build embassy relationships and networks; to give scholars a practical way to assist anti-trafficking efforts, and help the Smithsonian draw on its unique expertise and resources to support the protection and preservation of our shared material culture. Since the design of the new workshop series would benefit other federal law enforcement agencies, the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Art Theft Program was invited to join the workshop organising committee.Footnote31
The new cultural property anti-trafficking training series began in 2021 with three online workshops focussed on ancient and historic coins, manuscripts, and fakes and forgeries.Footnote32 The series continued in 2022 with two workshops focussed on cultural heritage from Central Asia and Latin America.Footnote33 Each workshop brought together an average of 100 participants—far exceeding the number of participants able to attend in-person workshops—with attendees from Homeland Security Investigations, Customs and Border Protection, the FBI’s Art Crime Team, the US Department of State and the Smithsonian, along with international partners and representatives from US universities, museums and the private sector. MCI acts as the primary organiser and host of the online series; other Smithsonian museums and research centres that have contributed to these trainings include the National Museum of American History,Footnote34 National Museum of the American Indian, the National Museum of Asian Art, the National Museum of Natural History, and Smithsonian Libraries and Archives.Footnote35 A third online series was held in 2023 with workshops focussed on Southeast Asia and Central and Eastern Europe—and an audience of 150 attendees per workshop.
Early feedback from participants in the new workshop series has been overwhelmingly positive. Attendees report that the wide range of speakers and the information they provide place the workshops among their most useful training experiences. Speakers say they value the opportunity to contribute to the fight against heritage trafficking, and in-country experts are especially eager to connect directly with the law enforcement personnel protecting their cultural treasures. Formal and informal feedback is gathered after each workshop and used as a reference point to ensure that future workshops remain engaging, informative and practical. Workshop attendance continues to grow, with the most recent online workshops drawing up to six times the audience of the Smithsonian’s in-person workshops. Individual participation in multiple workshops is common, and while the series is designed for an audience with previous experience in cultural heritage casework, attendees with less experience report the workshops increase their interest in working these cases.
Communication and collaboration are key to the success of these workshops. MCI staff plan and lead meetings of the organising committee but everyone has a voice in the planning, and the shared goal of protecting cultural heritage helps balance the changing needs of attendees and organisers. In addition to the sustainable impacts of online training, including lowered costs for attendees and organisers and a reduced carbon footprint per participant, the virtual workshops expand learning and engagement opportunities for attendees. Working with other Smithsonian units on the new series connects attendees with more experts and builds collaboration within the Smithsonian’s own network. Requests for the Smithsonian’s help with cultural heritage in crisis continue to grow; building internal and external collaboration improves current and future projects and makes the Institution a stronger partner in global efforts to preserve our shared cultural history.
Shared Stewardship and Ethical Returns Policy
Assembled throughout its history, Smithsonian collections currently total 157.2 million objects and specimens, 148,200 cubic feet of archives, and 2.3 million library volumes, covering subjects from art to zoology. The collections represent communities from across the globe and the Smithsonian’s varied histories of engagement with communities, past and present. The Smithsonian recognises that some of the collecting, care and research practices from the past no longer meet current ethical standards, and that continued retention and sole stewardship of certain collections may continue to cause harm to communities. In April 2021, in response to the Smithsonian’s strategic priorities and the growing demand for cultural equity and justice in society, senior leadership established the Ethical Returns Working Group to consider issues related to the shared stewardship and ethical return of Smithsonian collections. This action was critical to establishing more just and inclusive collections stewardship practices.
The working group was tasked to consider whether the Smithsonian should develop a formal policy, position or statement related to the circumstances under which it may implement shared stewardship with communities represented in our collections and consider the return of collections based on ethical considerations. Members of the working group included staff from across the Smithsonian who worked in areas of provenance research, repatriation, collections management, curatorship and other disciplines related to collections care and stewardship.Footnote36 Many of the members had extensive experience implementing US federal law regarding the repatriation of Native American collections at the Smithsonian as well as fostering relationships that led to collaboration with communities globally.Footnote37 Over the following 6 months, the working group held consultations with outside experts, developed a glossary of terms to ensure staff shared the same understanding of terms, developed a statement of values and principles, and drafted a policy on shared stewardship and ethical returns. The group quickly coalesced around the need to be proactive and draft a formal policy. It was understood that an ethical returns policy would be a substantial change and might affect relationships with future donors and perpetuate other similar issues. However, these concerns were vastly outweighed by the consensus that the adoption of a policy by the Smithsonian was the right course of action. It was also acknowledged that the Institution did not have all the answers and substantial work would need to be done in consultation with communities.
In addition to internal discussion, the group sought external expert advice and the opinion of thought leaders and advocates in the field of cultural property. The conversations not only informed the working group’s final recommendations but also contributed to the Values and Principles Statement. Several aspects of ethical returns were repeatedly emphasised and are reflected in the statement, including themes of inclusion, mutual respect, community engagement and consultation; the acknowledgement of the lasting harm caused by collecting practices of the past; and the recognition of the need to implement new standards of ethical stewardship. The experts also stressed the importance that the Institution prioritise the needs of communities in all aspects of this work and for the entire process to be guided by principles of transparency and honesty.
Intended as a companion to the Values and Principles Statement, the working group drafted a Glossary of Terms as an internal reference document. The glossary includes definitions of terms used in the Values and Principles Statement and general terms related to shared stewardship and ethical returns. The glossary was developed as a starting point with the intention that additional terms related to specific collections and/or procedures could be added in the future. In that sense, while the glossary was created to be useful as an internal document, the working group also considered that it could be adapted across the Smithsonian for use with members of the public, including claimants. Two of the terms in the glossary are worth noting: the definitions of shared stewardship and ethical return. These terms were defined as follows:
‘Shared Stewardship: Sharing authority, expertise, and responsibility for the respectful attribution, documentation, interpretation, display, care, storage, public access, and disposition of a collection item, including intellectual property rights generally associated with possession and ownership, in accordance with the advice of the community.
Ethical Return: The act of giving back to a more rightful owner based on ethical considerations when not required by law. In making an ethical return, technical legal defenses such as statutes of limitations or laches which may be available are not asserted as a means to retain ownership or possession.’
The ethical returns policy called for the Smithsonian to look beyond legal title and consider the manner and circumstances in which collections were originally acquired. In other words, under the proposed policy, even if the Smithsonian legally owns an artifact, it may choose to return it to the community of origin because continued retention or sole stewardship may not be consistent with current ethical practice and principles. At its core, the policy states that the Smithsonian has an obligation to respectfully engage, consult and work collaboratively with descendants and communities represented in its collections and those it serves by providing procedures for shared stewardship and ethical return requests. Due to the breadth that the Smithsonian collections cover, everything from spacecraft to works of fine art and items of historical and scientific significance, all Smithsonian collecting units would be required to develop their own policy guidance and procedures—specifically tailored to their collections—as an amendment to their collections management policy.
On 29 April 2022, the Smithsonian adopted the new policy,Footnote38 and incorporated it into the Smithsonian’s collections management policy when it was updated 13 days later.Footnote39 As part of the roll out, internal presentations and discussions were led across various Smithsonian venues and an Implementation Working Group was established. Because of the diverse scope and history of Smithsonian collections, its collecting units, and their experience with community engagement and consultation, it was essential to establish the working group to provide assistance, guidance and support. All Smithsonian collecting units were given until the end of 2022 to submit their drafts for review and approval.
The first museum to consider an ethical return under the new policy was the National Museum of African Art.Footnote40 The museum has rich and collaborative relationships with many cultural stakeholders in Nigeria and the return was founded on trust built over many decades and with the intent to continue to work together. Following standard policy for the de-accession and return of an artifact from a Smithsonian collection, dialogue about the return of the Benin bronzes in their collection was initiated with the National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM) and the Oba of the Kingdom of Benin, thorough provenance research of the objects in question was completed, and the artworks were appraised by outside experts to determine their value. Due to the high value and significance of the artworks, de-accessioning also required the approval of the Smithsonian Secretary and the Smithsonian’s Board of Regents. When the process was complete, the Smithsonian transferred ownership of 29 bronzes to NCMM. A signing ceremony took place on 11 October 2022, with Professor Abba Tijani, Director General of NCMM, which also included Lai Mohammed, Minister of Information and Culture, Nigeria, and Prince Aghatise Erediauwa, representing the Oba, as part of the occasion (see and ).
Fig. 7 Abdul-Mohammed Gimba, Director, Museums, National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM) and Dana Moffett, Head of Collections, National Museum of African Art condition check the bronzes on arrival in Nigeria with members of the NCMM staff. Photography by Julie McKay, US Embassy and Consulate in Nigeria.
Fig. 8 Lonnie G. Bunch III, Secretary of the Smithsonian, and Professor Abba Tijani, Director General of the NCMM, sign the papers for transfer of ownership of the bronzes. Photograph by Brad Simpson, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution.
The adoption of the policy is the first step towards addressing the issues related to past collecting and a great deal of work lies ahead as the Smithsonian changes how it manages, researches and interprets its collections; however, it is not the only step. It is essential for the Smithsonian to include community representation in its collections and embrace the role of a collaborative custodian of cultural and historical legacies. Implementation of the policy requires continued dialogue, including internal and external discussions that promote inclusion, mutual respect and community involvement, and engage other institutions in this critical effort. Additionally, the Smithsonian is committed to working in an ethical and responsible manner regarding future acquisitions. Lastly and most importantly, the Smithsonian will continue to pursue more just and inclusive collections stewardship practices. In working with communities, scholars and indigenous researchers, the Institution will improve provenance research, establish clearer and more transparent processes for shared stewardship and ethical returns, and generate more equitable knowledge sharing and production.
Conclusion
Thousands of people across the Smithsonian Institution are working hard every day to preserve and protect our shared history. We strive to be flexible and responsive to an evolving world and collaborate with new and long-standing colleagues alike to sustain and celebrate global cultural heritage. This paper presents a glimpse of different programmes with different goals, but the common thread throughout these stories is the importance of communication and collaboration. Programmes at the Smithsonian emerge in multiple ways, regardless of location or focus, including via internal and external requests and proposals from Smithsonian staff. While our scale helps our ability to respond, the approach is applicable to all sizes of project and organisation—we respond to requests for assistance by listening to others’ needs and evaluating our resources and ability to help, and we look to our existing networks to strengthen and build new connections for ourselves and others. Whether partnering with local and regional governments on cultural rescue, working with national and international agencies on heritage training, or developing internal policies to help us serve as better stewards of our collections and relationships, communication and collaboration are at the foundation of all our efforts. Trust and relationships take time to build, and no one gets it right every time. We hope that by sharing some of our challenges, struggles and accomplishments, we can help others work together to prepare and respond to requests for assistance in preserving heritage. We are in this together. We cannot, and should not, do this work alone.
Acronyms
| ALIPH: | = | International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas |
| AMOT: | = | Army Monuments Officer Training |
| CATF: | = | Cultural Antiquities Task Force, US Department of State |
| CER: | = | Cultural Emergency Response |
| CHCC: | = | Cultural Heritage Coordinating Committee, US Department of State |
| CHML: | = | Cultural Heritage Monitoring Lab, Virginia Museum of Natural History |
| CIDCM: | = | Center for International Development and Conflict Management, University of Maryland |
| CPAA: | = | Cultural Property, Art and Antiquities Program, US Department of Homeland Security |
| FBI: | = | Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice |
| HERI: | = | Heritage Emergency Response Initiative, Ukraine |
| ICCROM: | = | International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property |
| ICHP: | = | Iraq Cultural Heritage Project, US Department of State |
| KRG: | = | Kurdistan Regional Government |
| LMS: | = | Learning Management System |
| MCI: | = | Museum Conservation Institute, Smithsonian Institution |
| MFAA: | = | Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives Teams; US Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command |
| NCMM: | = | National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Nigeria |
| NGO: | = | Non-Governmental Organisation |
| OIR: | = | Office of International Relations, Smithsonian Institution |
| SBAH: | = | State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, Iraq |
| SCRI: | = | Smithsonian Cultural Rescue Initiative |
| SME: | = | subject matter expert |
| UNESCO: | = | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the colleagues at home and around the world working to preserve our shared cultural history. A special thanks to the communities who collaborate with us and entrust us with their tangible and intangible treasures, to the Smithsonian leadership and teammates who provide unwavering assistance, and the many public and private funding agencies who provide support. Thanks also to Elizabeth Tunick and Kelly McHugh for their insights and edits on the paper.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Dawn Rogala
Dawn V. Rogala is a paintings conservator and programme manager at the Smithsonian’s Museum Conservation Institute. She studies and conserves paintings and painted objects at the Smithsonian and affiliate institutions, with a specialisation in modern art and materials, and creates and oversees a range of MCI programmes in cultural heritage protection, provenance research and anti-trafficking, including programmes developed with other Smithsonian offices and in collaboration with other federal agencies. She serves as a subject matter expert on individual cases and assists with the coordination of Smithsonian experts for the assessment and technical analysis of seized objects.
Katelynn Averyt
Katelynn Averyt is the Disaster Response Coordinator at the Smithsonian Cultural Rescue Initiative where she manages emergency response field work and deployments for domestic and international cultural heritage disaster missions. She routinely works with partners in the Smithsonian, US Government, international NGOs and colleagues around the world to improve cultural heritage disaster capabilities in the field and facilitate faster responses. Katelynn joined the Smithsonian in 2013 and previously worked in the Office of the Director at the National Museum of Asian Art.
Jessica Johnson
Jessica S. Johnson is the Acting Director and Head of Conservation at the Smithsonian’s Museum Conservation Institute. She previously worked for the University of Delaware’s Institute for Global Studies, as Academic Director for the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage in Erbil, Iraq. She helped to establish the Iraqi Institute beginning in 2009, first serving as the Program Director for Collections Care and Conservation. Before working in Iraq, she was the Senior Objects Conservator for the Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American Indian and also worked for the US National Park Service Museum Management Program.
Brian Lione
Brian Michael Lione is the International Cultural Heritage Protection Program Manager at the Smithsonian’s Museum Conservation Institute. He leads capacity-building courses at the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage in Erbil, and on-site, post-ISIS recovery efforts at the Mosul Cultural Museum and at the ancient archaeological city of Nimrud. Brian additionally serves on the Smithsonian’s Rural Initiative Working Group, supports anti-trafficking training for US law enforcement, and response and recovery training for domestic and international heritage specialists, and is a graduate of the sixth cohort of the Smithsonian’s Palmer Leadership Development Program.
Joanne Flores
Joanne Sofía Flores joined the Smithsonian Institution in 2000 and is currently the Senior Program Officer for Art, Office of the Under Secretary for Museums and Culture; she is a member of the senior management team with focus on art and design and implementation of special initiatives. Her previous roles at the Smithsonian include Head of Special Projects, Office of the Under Secretary for History, Art, and Culture; Director of Core Programs, Smithsonian Latino Center; and National Outreach Manager, Smithsonian Affiliations. Prior to the Smithsonian, she held positions at the National Endowment for the Arts, and Very Special Arts.
William Tompkins
William G. Tompkins is the founding director of the Smithsonian’s National Collections Program, serving as a principal advisor to Smithsonian senior management and staff on matters relating to collections management and providing central leadership, policy oversight, strategic planning and support of institution-wide collections initiatives. Previously, he served as assistant director of the Smithsonian’s Office of the Registrar, and as the collections manager of the National Numismatic Collection at the National Museum of American History.
Notes
1 See https://www.si.edu (accessed 15 May 2023).
2 See https://haiti.si.edu/ (accessed 15 May 2023).
3 As its founding director, SCRI hired Cori Wegener, a former US Army Reserve Officer and ‘Monuments Woman’ who helped salvage and stabilise the Iraq Museum from the looting that followed the 2003 invasion and founded the US Committee of the Blue Shield, advocating for the US ratification of the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.
4 See https://culturalrescue.si.edu/hentf/about-hentf/ (accessed 15 May 2023).
5 See https://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center/cultural-heritage-coordinating-committee (accessed 15 May 2023).
6 See details and updates at: https://www.vmnh.net/research-collections/chml (accessed 7 August 2023).
7 See https://culturalrescue.si.edu/what-we-do/resilience/leadership-for-cultural-heritage-stewards/ (accessed 15 May 2023).
8 For press reports see, for example, https://www.usar.army.mil/News/Article/1995754/usacapoc-smithsonian-to-train-the-next-generation-of-monuments-men/ and https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/11/arts/design/war-monument-protection.html (both accessed 7 August 2023).
9 For examples see https://hub.conflictobservatory.org/portal/apps/sites/#/home (accessed 7 August 2023).
10 See https://www.facebook.com/HERI.Ukraine (accessed 15 May 2023).
11 See https://iwgsc.nal.usda.gov/about-iwgsc (accessed 15 May 2023).
12 See https://maidanmuseum.net/en/node/2379 (accessed 15 May 2023).
13 See https://global.si.edu/projects/smithsonian-and-iraqi-institute-conservation-antiquities-and-heritage (accessed 15 May 2023).
14 Christina Luke and Morag M. Kersel, U.S. Cultural Diplomacy and Archaeology: Soft Power, Hard Heritage (London and New York: Routledge, 2013), 87–90 give a more in-depth description of the ICHP within some of the broader political context.
15 Roger Matthews et al., ʻHeritage and Cultural Healing: Iraq in a Post-Daesh Era', International Journal of Heritage Studies 26, no. 2 (2020): 120–41 describe some of this loss and discuss possibilities for rebuilding the cultural heritage sector within a human rights framework and the need for education at all levels.
16 Capacity building can be defined as an improvement in an individual’s or institution’s ability to fulfil their desired goals. UNESCO’s World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy provides extensive detail on the need for capacity building, and provides a well-crafted definition (albeit keyed to the conservation and management of World Heritage). For more information see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/capacity-building/ and https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2011/whc11-35com-9Be.pdf (both accessed 8 August 2023). For the Smithsonian, capacity building takes the form of both training courses and a variety of more informal interactions related to carrying out projects at a variety of sites around Iraq.
17 Authors Jessica S. Johnson and Brian Michael Lione have been involved with the Iraqi Institute since 2009 and continue their hands-on involvement there. See Jessica S. Johnson et al., ‘Collaboration, Sustainability and Reconciliation: Teaching Cultural Heritage Preservation and Management in Iraq’, in Preprints of the ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Meeting, Melbourne, Australia, September 2014, ed. Janet Bridgeland (Paris: International Council of Museums, 2014), 8.
18 See, for example, Jessica S. Johnson, Abdullah Khorsheed, and Brian M. Lione, ‘The Iraqi Institute: Education for Archaeological Research and Conservation’, in The Archaeology of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and Adjacent Regions, ed. Konstantin Kopanias and John MacGinnis (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2016), 135–8; Jessica S. Johnson, Kim Cullen Cobb, and Brian M. Lione, ‘The Role of Conservation Education in Reconciliation: The Example of the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation of Antiquities and Heritage’, in Heritage Conservation and Social Engagement, ed. Renata F. Peters et al. (London: UCL Press, 2020), 46–65; Jessica S. Johnson and Brian M. Lione, ‘Conservation After Conflict: Rebuilding a Heritage Community in Iraq’, in The Oxford Handbook of Museum Archaeology, ed. Alice Stevenson (London: Oxford University Press, 2022), 157-C8.P106, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198847526.013.22 (accessed 15 May 2023); Taylor Pearlstein and Jessica S. Johnson, ‘Recording and Archiving Conservation Education Approaches in Iraq, 2008–2017’, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 59, no. 1 (2020): 53–64.
19 The YouTube videos can be found in three playlists on the Iraqi Institute YouTube page: (all accessed 7 August 2023):
20 Cf. Sultan Barakat, ʻPostwar Reconstruction and the Recovery of Cultural Heritage: Critical Lessons from the Last Fifteen Years’, in Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery, ed. Nicholas Stanley-Price (Rome: International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, 2007), 26–39.
21 Cf. Barakat, ʻPostwar Reconstruction’, 26–39.
22 See https://mci.si.edu/ (accessed 15 May 2023).
23 See https://mci.si.edu/conservation-cultural-heritage-protection (accessed 15 May 2023).
24 See, for example, this case: https://mci.si.edu/smithsonian-assists-fbi-ruby-slippers-case (accessed 7 August 2023).
25 See https://global.si.edu/who-we-are/office-international-relations (accessed 15 May 2023).
26 For information on the workshop programme see https://eca.state.gov/highlight/seasoned-law-enforcement-receive-advanced-training-protect-cultural-heritage; for CATF see https://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center/cultural-antiquities-task-force; for details about the CHC see https://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center (all accessed 15 May 2023).
27 See https://www.ice.gov/features/cpaa (accessed 15 May 2023).
28 National Museum of the American Indian: https://americanindian.si.edu/; National Museum of Asian Art: https://asia.si.edu/; National Museum of Natural History: https://naturalhistory.si.edu/ (all accessed 15 May 2023).
29 See https://mci.si.edu/preventing-illicit-trafficking-ancient-cuneiform-tablets-through-mci-conference-connecting (accessed 15 May 2023).
30 See https://mci.si.edu/cultural-property-anti-trafficking-workshops-move-online (accessed 15 May 2023).
31 See https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/art-crime (accessed 15 May 2023).
32 For more details about the workshops, see, on coins: https://eca.state.gov/highlight/virtual-workshop-trains-us-law-enforcement-combat-trafficking-ancient-coins; on manuscripts: https://eca.state.gov/highlight/virtual-workshop-trains-us-law-enforcement-combat-trafficking-manuscripts; on fakes: https://eca.state.gov/highlight/virtual-workshop-trains-us-law-enforcement-detect-trafficking-fakes-and-forgeries (all accessed 15 May 2023).
33 For more details, see, on Central Asia: https://eca.state.gov/highlight/virtual-workshop-trains-law-enforcement-disrupt-trafficking-central-asian-cultural; on Latin America: https://eca.state.gov/highlight/virtual-workshop-law-enforcement-latin-america (both accessed 15 May 2023).
34 National Museum of American History, https://americanhistory.si.edu/ (accessed 15 May 2023).
35 Smithsonian Libraries and Archives, https://library.si.edu/departments/special-collections (accessed 15 May 2023).
36 For details of the Smithsonian’s current ethical returns policy, see: https://ncp.si.edu/sites/default/files/files/Ethical%20Return%20Docs/smithsonian-ethical-returns-working-group.pdf (accessed 16 May 2023).
37 See the National Museum of the American Indian Act of 1989, 20 U.S.C. 80q, amended in 1996: https://americanindian.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/about/NMAI1996Amendment.pdf (accessed 21 July 2023).
38 For the Smithsonian’s current Values and Principles Statement adopted on 29 April 2022, see: https://ncp.si.edu/sites/default/files/files/Ethical%20Return%20Docs/shared-stewardship-and-ethical-returns-values-and-principles_4.29.2022.pdf (accessed 8 August 2023).
39 For the current Smithsonian Directive (SD) 600, Collections Management policy document see https://www.si.edu/content/pdf/about/sd/SD600.pdf (accessed 16 May 2023).
40 Cf. Lonnie G. Bunche III, ‘Why the Smithsonian Adopted a New Policy on Ethical Collecting’, Smithsonian Magazine, June 2022, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/smithsonian-adopted-new-policy-ethical-collecting-180980047/ (accessed 8 August 2023).