Critical reflections on strategies for mitigating and adapting to urban heat islands

ABSTRACT

Cities are described as urban heat islands (UHI) due to the intensity of the heat generated by urban activities. Buildings, for example, absorb and emit heat, which contributes to urban heat. Cities contribute to global warming, which, over time, influences climate change. Cities contend with these challenges concurrently through mitigation and adaptation strategies. Through their unintended conflicts and trade-offs, the strategies may impact each other adversely. What are typologies of these trade-offs and conflicts, and how do they influence the effectiveness of UHI management by governments? To answer this research question, this paper used the desktop, case-study and evidence-based research techniques. The paper found and discussed specific conflicts and trade-offs between UHI mitigation and adaptation strategies, as well as effective integration, innovation and evaluation management mechanisms. The findings should provide actionable insights for urban policymakers and planners, on UHI management and long-term climate resilience in cities.

KEYWORDS:

• Mitigation
• adaptation
• urban heat island (UHI)
• trade-offs
• conflicts

1. Introduction

Urbanisation has precipitated swift transformations in cities, spanning the political, economic, physical, environmental and social aspects of life. The focus in this paper is on the direct and indirect transformations in and on urban climate. The rapid expansion of urban populations and economies, coupled with extensive energy consumption across all sectors, contributes significantly to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) (IPCC 2007). In turn, humans and the environment are directly impacted by climate change. Scientific and empirical evidence shows that cities trap and emit or release heat due to primarily to the concentration and density of anthropogenic activities. This phenomenon affects the temperature of cities, and is a subject of extensive research (Phelan et al. 2015). It has led scholars to label cities as UHIs (Oke 1995; Stone et al. 2012; Levermore et al. 2018; Yu et al. 2020).

Cities have become central to every discourse about climate change. Arguably, as UHIs, they directly influence climate change, are directly impacted by climate change, and are the most appropriate targets for climate change mitigation and adaptation policies, programmes and initiatives. The focus on cities is more critical as projections suggest that UHI is poised to intensify in the coming decades (Koomen and Diogo 2017). It is in the context of the attention to climate change mitigation and adaptation in cities that the aim and questions addressed in this paper are couched. The paper answered the research question posed by identifying and reviewing strategies that do, and can, inform municipal climate change and sustainability policies, programmes and projects.

Research shows that the impacts of UHIs can be effectively tackled through the adoption of well-informed measures often classified into ‘adaptation’ and ‘mitigation’ strategies. IPCC defines adaptation as ‘the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects’ in both human and natural systems (IPCC & Team 2014). The term refers to prompt adjustments made to confront both current and expected repercussions of climate change. Its objective is to decrease vulnerability and bolster the ability to cope with changes. This involves the development of strategies and the execution of measures aimed at diminishing the vulnerability of communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure to the consequences of climate change. UHI adaptation is primarily focused on influencing ‘human systems’ that respond to the heightened heat conditions, rather than the ‘natural systems’ such as the urban microclimate. Consequently, its effects are localised and limited to enhancing thermal comfort, rather than having a broad and enduring impact on the entire urban microclimate (Solecki et al. 2005).

Mitigation, on the other hand, involves the implementation of measures aimed at diminishing or preventing GHG emissions and reducing energy consumption, with the goal of mitigating the long-term consequences of climate change. It concentrates on addressing the factors that drive climate change and is defined by the IPCC as ‘human interventions aimed at decreasing emissions sources or bolstering GHG sinks’ (IPCC & Team 2014). Mitigation strategies encompass well-thought-out, comprehensive efforts that entail cooperation between government bodies and impacted parties. These actions seek to alter the urban microclimate by making changes to the physical environment (Solecki et al. 2005; Mahdavi et al. 2016). Carefully planned and consistently executed measures of this nature are anticipated to positively impact the urban microclimate and effectively tackle the adverse effects associated with the UHI phenomenon.

A summary of the key differences between adaptation and mitigation is provided in Table 1. Their referenced definitions do not imply compartmentalisation, rather the overarching objective of both is fundamentally the same, i.e. to prevent (avoid) and manage (cope with) the adverse impacts of climate change (Hamin and Gurran 2009). Increased mitigation efforts can decrease the long-term adaptation requirements, and enhanced adaptation measures can reduce mitigation costs by bolstering coping and adaptive capabilities (Endo et al. 2017; Xu et al. 2019). Effective adaptation relies on effective mitigation, and conversely, mitigation benefits from robust adaptation efforts. This complementarity or mutual interdependence is acknowledged in global policy frameworks. For example, the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC 2015) and the New Urban Agenda (Habitat 2016) emphasise the importance of crafting action plans that encompass both mitigation and adaptation mechanisms.

Table 1. Distinguishing characteristics of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures (modified from Dang et al. 2003).

Aspect	Adaptation	Mitigation
Purpose	Address immediate and future climate change impacts	Reduce GHG emissions to curb climate change
Timeframe	Short and medium term	Long term
Geographical scale	Local and regional	Global
Sectoral focus	A wider range of sectors	Energy-intensive sectors that are main sources of GHGs
Nature of action	Reactive to the real-world climate impacts. Proactive when adaptation measures are grounded in anticipated climate impacts.	Proactive measures to reduce emissions
Level of effectiveness	Less certain	Certain (with regard to the reduction of GHG emissions)
Equity Concerns	Some regions, with less historical responsibility for climate change, face disproportionate climate impacts, raising concerns about fairness.	Countries less vulnerable to climate impacts may lack motivation to contribute to mitigation efforts, posing challenges for global climate action.

There are extensive discussions and descriptions in the multidisciplinary literature of UHI mitigation and adaptation initiatives and strategies. Research by scholars and practitioners in fields such as urban meteorology, urban physics, landscape ecology, planning and design, urban governance, and public health provide disciple-specific insights. For instance, Dannenberg et al. (2019) identified the urban warming phenomenon, shedding light on the escalating temperatures within urban areas. Oke (1988) discussed the mechanisms of urban climatic anomalies using urban surface energy balance. Santamouris et al. (2011) focused on understanding the heat-induced impacts on built environments and spearheaded the development of urban cooling strategies, such as reflective materials and permeable surfaces. Qin and Karnieli (1999) delved into the intricacies of land surface temperature retrieval algorithms using remote sensing methods, offering insights into the impacts of land use and land cover on UHI evolution. The referenced multidisciplinary initiatives underscore the diverse and complex nature of UHI research, and emphasise the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration that is needed to address the challenges of UHIs.

1.1. Adaptation and mitigation inter-relationships

The intersection of climate change and UHI adaptation and mitigation strategies represents a critical nexus in urban sustainability. UHIs, characterised by elevated temperatures in urban areas, are not isolated from broader climate change challenges. The interplay between UHI strategies and climate action can give rise to four distinct types of interactions: co-benefits, synergies, conflicts, and trade-offs. Understanding these interactions is vital for developing effective and integrated urban policies that address both local heat issues and global climate concerns. In examining the relationships between adaptation and mitigation strategies, it is essential to recognise the diverse nature of these interactions. While the paper categorises these relationships into co-benefits, synergies, conflicts, and trade-offs, it is important to acknowledge that such interactions can also occur among specific adaptation or mitigation strategies themselves. For instance, cool pavements, often considered as an UHI mitigation strategy, may exhibit both positive and negative effects on energy demand (Wang et al. 2021). In summer, they can reduce cooling energy demand by decreasing surface temperatures and the need for air conditioning. However, during winter months, cool pavements may contribute to increased heating demand by absorbing less sunlight and retaining less heat, thereby necessitating higher heating requirements to maintain indoor thermal comfort (Wang et al. 2021). Such nuances highlight the complexity of climate change response strategies and underscore the importance of comprehensive assessments in designing effective and sustainable climate adaptation and mitigation plans.

1.1.1. Co-benefits

The IPCC (Masson-Delmotte 2018) defines co-benefits as ‘the positive effects that a policy or measure aimed at one objective might have on other objectives, thereby increasing the total benefits for society or the environment’. For example, strategies like increasing urban greenery can mitigate UHIs by providing shade and cooling effects, while also sequestering carbon dioxide, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation. Co-benefits underscore the potential to achieve multiple goals efficiently and enhance the overall sustainability of urban areas.

1.1.2. Synergies

According to the IPCC (Parry 2007), synergy refers to the ‘intersection of adaptation and mitigation so that their combined effect is greater than the sum effect if implemented separately’. Duguma et al. (Duguma et al. 2014) characterised the synergy between mitigation and adaptation as ‘an approach in which both mitigation and adaptation measures are addressed without any prioritization, mainly undertaken within a systems-thinking context to address climate change issues’. Consider, for instance, cool roof installations, which can reduce energy consumption (a mitigation benefit) while also lowering indoor temperatures (an adaptation benefit). Identifying synergistic opportunities allows urban planners to maximise the impact of their actions and achieve multiple objectives simultaneously, making urban environments more resilient and sustainable.

1.1.3. Trade-offs

Trade-offs are perhaps the most challenging aspect of the interrelationship between climate change and UHI adaptation and mitigation. Trade-offs arise when the implementation of an adaptation measure has adverse consequences for mitigation, or vice versa (Berry et al. 2015). An example of this can be the installation of green roofs, which can provide UHI adaptation benefits by reducing rooftop temperatures but may increase energy consumption for heating in colder climates, potentially impeding climate change mitigation goals. Managing trade-offs demands a balanced approach and informed decision-making to align with specific urban contexts.

1.1.4. Conflicts

Conflicts can occur when UHI adaptation and mitigation strategies inadvertently hinder one another’s progress (Landauer et al. 2015). These conflicts may arise when UHI mitigation actions unintentionally impede climate adaptation goals or vice versa. For instance, strategies focused on increasing reflective surfaces to reduce UHIs may inadvertently increase energy consumption during colder months, potentially conflicting with climate change mitigation objectives. Resolving these conflicts requires careful planning and a comprehensive understanding of potential trade-offs.

This review’s deliberate focus on examining the trade-offs and conflicts associated with climate change and UHI adaptation and mitigation measures arises from their paramount significance in contemporary urban sustainability efforts. Governments need to be more proactive in minimising or pre-empting trade-offs and conflicts. In this regard, a crucial question arises and is addressed in this paper. What are various types of trade-offs and conflicts between environmental mitigation and adaptation strategies, and how do these influence the effectiveness of UHI management? To answer this question, this paper delved into the pertinent literature, using the desktop and evidence-based research techniques. Recognising that these two interactions have gained prominence in scientific discourse and policymaking, particularly since their endorsement in the Paris Climate Agreement (Dovie 2019), underscores their critical role in shaping urban resilience. By narrowing the research scope to trade-offs and conflicts, this study aims to delve deeper into the nuanced complexities and potential trade-offs that may hinder the seamless integration of UHI adaptation and mitigation strategies. Furthermore, this review will be specifically tailored to the built environment, with a pronounced emphasis on the building construction industry. This focused approach is primarily motivated by the existing gap in scholarly literature and research. By delving deeply into this subject matter, this research seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding and fill this crucial void, ultimately contributing to the development of more informed, sustainable practices for stakeholders in the building construction industry and urban planning.

2. Methodology

The research in this paper is primarily qualitative investigation and review. Three specific techniques were used to gather the information needed to address the research questions and aim. The techniques are the desktop and evidence-based techniques. Through desktop investigation, an extensive and in-depth review of the relevant literature was conducted. Evidence or examples and cases of mitigation and adaptation strategies were reviewed and discussed. The paper commenced with the identification of the pertinent literature. Specific criteria were delineated by the authors for the selection of articles that aligned closely with the research subject. The synthesis of knowledge pertaining to adaptation and mitigation measures and their intricate interplay, particularly focusing on tradeoffs and conflicts, was meticulously derived from an in-depth content analysis of the selected articles, as elaborated upon below.

The literature reviewed included articles, book chapters, conference proceedings and grey literature in English using various databases like Google Scholar, IEEE, Scopus, Wiley Online Library, and Science Direct. The search was performed using topic and title keywords, carefully developed to ensure relevant articles were covered while minimising irrelevant search results. Table 1 presents the combinations of keywords used for this systematic literature review on urban heat island mitigation measures. No specific timeframe was established, as the objective was to comprehensively explore a wide spectrum of literature pertaining to UHI conflicts and trade-off. The research process included terms such as ‘mitigation’, ‘adaptation’, ‘tradeoff’, ‘conflict’, ‘synergy’, ‘co-benefit’, ‘climate change’, ‘urban heat island’, ‘UHI’, ‘building construction’, ‘urban’, ‘city’, interaction”, ‘interrelationship’. All the search results were examined manually. Initially, a total of 175 articles were identified. Figure 1 illustrates the search and selection process employed to identify the relevant articles for the study.

Figure 1. Search and selection process.

It is important to clarify that the focus was specifically on examining the interactions between adaptation and mitigation strategies in the context of climate change. As such, the search strategy was tailored to target articles that explicitly addressed these interactions, rather than casting a wider net to encompass all literature on adaptation and mitigation measures individually. This deliberate approach allowed for a sharp focus on the research objectives and ensured the relevance of the identified articles to the study’s scope. While the number of articles may appear limited at first glance, it reflects the methodological rigour in selecting only those studies directly relevant to the investigation into the interplay between adaptation and mitigation strategies. Then, a meticulous exclusion process was undertaken to eliminate unsuitable papers and further enhance the precision of the search. The author established selection criteria that justified the inclusion or elimination of each record, based on the review’s stated purpose. Since some articles are indexed in multiple databases, duplicates were identified and removed through data cleaning. Keywords and abstracts were meticulously evaluated to narrow down potentially pertinent articles, and their full texts were scrupulously scrutinised. This included cross-referencing their references to ensure valuable contributions were not omitted. Following the completion of all data refinement procedures, a cumulative total of 48 articles remained in the dataset. Table 2 outlines the standards employed to choose publications for inclusion in this research review.

Table 2. The standards employed to choose publications for inclusion in this research review.

Keywords	“mitigation”, “adaptation”, “tradeoff”, “conflict”, “synergy”, “co-benefit”, “climate change”, “urban heat island”, “UHI”, “building construction”, “urban”, “city”, interaction”, “interrelationship”.
Document type	Academic papers published in journals, conference proceedings, book chapters
Peer-review status	Priority was accorded peer-reviewed documents, then credible gray literature sources were used, e.g. monographs and empirical research publications by reputable independent research and policy institutes, organizations or consultancies.
Database websites	Google Scholar, Scopus, IEEE, Wiley Online Library, and Science Direct
Language	English
Publication date range	No time limit was considered

The final phase encompasses the dissemination of findings, encompassing a meticulous assessment of the scrutinised research, pinpointing areas where further investigation is warranted, and crafting informed recommendations to guide future research endeavours. The following sections provide a concise synthesis of the discoveries, strategically tailored to address the core research inquiries.

3. Discussion of the literature

The literature on the concepts covered in this research is vast and cuts across various fields of research and practice. As a result, definitions, discussions, and applications of the concepts tend to be discipline-specific and sometimes conflicting or contradictory. The review of the literature in this section draws from various relevant sources. The interface between the literature and the aim of this study is highlighted. The rest of this section is structured as follows: Initially, it commences with a succinct bibliographic analysis known as ‘term co-occurrence analysis.’ Subsequently, it provides a comprehensive insight into the intricacies of trade-offs and conflicts, achieved through a synthesis of the extensive body of evidence extracted from the literature. Following this, the section delves into an in-depth discussion of the strategies and techniques for managing conflicts and balancing trade-offs. Finally, it offers a concise overview of the research gaps identified from the thorough analysis of the literature.

3.1. Bibliographic analysis

A bibliographic examination can serve the purpose of shedding light on the primary themes within the literature and their closely intertwined areas of research. To achieve this objective, a technique known as ‘term co-occurrence analysis’ is employed. Figure 2 presents the results of this analysis, where a minimum keyword occurrence threshold of 2 is applied. In the ‘term co-occurrence analysis’ by VOSviewer, the links between nodes represent the frequency and strength of co-occurrence between keywords in the analysed dataset. When two keywords are connected by a link, it indicates that they frequently appear together in the same documents or contexts within the dataset. The thickness of the link corresponds to the strength of the co-occurrence relationship between the two keywords. The presence of two links between some keywords may indicate that they have different types of relationships or co-occurrences within the dataset. For example, one link might represent a direct co-occurrence between two keywords, while the other link could signify a mediated or indirect relationship through intermediary keywords. The colours assigned to nodes typically represent different clusters or groups of keywords that have similar co-occurrence patterns. Nodes of the same colour tend to be more closely related to each other in terms of their co-occurrence patterns than nodes of different colours. Unsurprisingly, terms such as ‘urban heat island,’ ‘adaptation,’ and ‘mitigation’ emerge as the most frequently occurring and strongly interconnected concepts. Notably, ‘mitigation’ exhibits a higher frequency and stronger linkage compared to ‘adaptation.’ This observation aligns with established findings in the literature, which have consistently noted a greater emphasis on mitigation strategies within climate action plans, while the development and implementation of adaptation measures tend to be comparatively less progressive (Tang et al. 2010).

Figure 2. The term Co-occurrence diagram.

This review argues that the prevalence of ‘mitigation’ over ‘adaptation’ in the literature is a reflection of the historical emphasis on reducing GHG emissions and addressing the root causes of climate change. Mitigation strategies have traditionally garnered more attention and resources due to their proactive nature and perceived effectiveness in combating climate change at a global scale. Furthermore, climate action plans and policy initiatives have often prioritised mitigation efforts as a means to achieve long-term sustainability goals. However, it’s important to recognise that this emphasis on mitigation does not diminish the significance of adaptation strategies. Adaptation plays a crucial role in addressing the immediate impacts of climate change, particularly in vulnerable communities and urban areas affected by phenomena such as urban heat islands. Therefore, while mitigation may receive greater focus in the literature and policy discourse, both mitigation and adaptation strategies are essential components of comprehensive climate action plans aimed at building resilience and sustainability in the face of environmental challenges.

The term ‘sustainability’ appears with notable frequency and exhibits robust connections to both ‘adaptation’ and ‘mitigation.’ This suggests a profound interrelationship between sustainability goals and the imperative need for well-structured adaptation and mitigation strategies. Furthermore, these terms are closely associated with the concept of ‘trade-offs,’ hinting at the likelihood of trade-offs arising within the context of climate action plans that aim to uphold sustainability objectives. These prospective trade-offs will be subjected to a comprehensive examination in the subsequent sections. Among the various dimensions of interactions between adaptation and mitigation efforts, namely trade-offs, co-benefits, followed by synergies, the former two have garnered significant attention in the literature. However, there appears to be a noticeable gap in research concerning conflicts within these interactions, warranting further exploration and analysis.

Regarding the clustering analysis, multiple distinct clusters have surfaced through the co-occurrence analysis. However, for the sake of clarity and focus, the authors have distilled these clusters into four primary categories. Each of these clusters encompasses key sectors and outlines the associated climatic impacts. A plausible interpretation for each cluster implies that the adoption of sector-specific adaptation and/or mitigation measures aimed at addressing these climatic impacts is likely to entail a complex interplay of trade-offs, conflicts, co-benefits, and synergies.

It’s important to note that this paper confines its examination to mitigation and adaptation strategies within the domain of the building construction industry. The subsequent sections of the paper will delve deeply into these five distinct clusters, providing an extensive exploration of each, (1) Urban Form, (2) Buildings, (3) Green infrastructure, (4) Blue infrastructure, and (5) Urban Policies. These clusters serve as the focal points for the comprehensive review that follows.

3.2. Trade-offs

This section serves as a synthesis of the body of evidence derived from the literature, shedding light on the intricate web of trade-offs associated with each of the four principal clusters elucidated in the preceding section.

3.2.1. Urban form

Urban Form is typically assessed, though not limited to, parameters such as population density, land use diversity, network connectivity, ease of access, presence of green spaces, and geometric patterns. The specific criteria used can vary depending on the research domain and objectives. The most significant cause of the UHI is urbanisation, which is recognised as a primary interface between human activities and their impacts on the climate (Jackson et al. 2013). The literature has extensively discussed adaptation and mitigation strategies related to land use. Generally, research within this field has consistently demonstrated that sprawling urban development exacerbates the UHI effect (Zhao et al. 2016; Chapman et al. 2019). These studies have identified that urban sprawl leads to a reduction in vegetation cover, thereby amplifying the intensity of the UHI (Lemonsu et al. 2015; Hu et al. 2017). In essence, there exists a broad consensus that compact urban forms, characterised by moderate levels of population density, connectivity, and land use diversity, are more favourable for mitigating the UHI effect. This approach not only aids in UHI mitigation but also offers additional benefits in terms of adaptation, as evidenced in the research by (Xu et al. 2019). From another viewpoint, it is also evident that high-density urban development involve mitigation trade-offs as they can amplify UHI intensities (Ren et al. 2021).

Increasing building density leads to the formation of deep and enclosed urban canyons, exacerbating and worsening micro-scale urban climate conditions for two primary reasons, as elaborated by (Erell et al. 2012). Firstly, these canyons trap an increased amount of solar radiation, primarily due to multiple reflections occurring within their confined confines. Secondly, the dense urban structure acts as a barrier, obstructing wind flow within the urban canopy layer and subsequently diminishing the effectiveness of natural ventilation cooling mechanisms. Furthermore, the trend towards heightened density in several rapidly expanding cities, particularly in East Asia, has translated into a greater reliance on steel for the construction of high-rise buildings. This shift carries adverse implications for mitigation efforts due to the fact that steel possesses a notably higher embodied energy footprint when juxtaposed with materials such as concrete and wood (Stokes and Seto 2016).

Compact urban development might entail certain trade-offs in mitigation efforts, yet it’s noteworthy that the literature emphasises a stronger focus on the adverse impacts it poses for adaptation strategies, which have garnered increased attention. In particular, research demonstrates that compact urban development can impede adaptation initiatives, primarily because high-density urban areas often lack sufficient green and open spaces, rendering them more susceptible to heat stress induced by the UHI effect (Hamin and Gurran 2009). As an illustration, findings from Melbourne, Australia, underscore that measures aimed at augmenting urban density and endorsing compact development as part of the Melbourne 2030 plan can actually escalate the extent of night-time UHI in various areas across the city (Coutts et al. 2010). In a similar vein, Perini and Magliocco (Perini and Magliocco 2014) conducted research in Italy, revealing that increased urban density was associated with elevated air temperatures. Similarly, a simulation conducted in Xiamen City, China, highlights that certain urban factors, namely population density, land use diversity, and street connectivity, have substantial effects on per capita transportation related GHG emissions. However, it’s noteworthy that these same factors were observed to significantly heighten the vulnerability to the UHI effect (Xu et al. 2019).

Notwithstanding these challenges, there is a contention that well-planned and smart design of compact cities has the potential to mitigate the associated trade-offs effectively (Koch et al. 2018). Smart design of compact cities seeks to harmonise the trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation by adopting a holistic urban planning approach. This will materialise through initiatives such as determining suitable density levels, ensuring equitable distribution of functions, and optimising the layout of streets, neighbourhoods, and city blocks (Sharifi 2019).

Urban albedo, a component of urban geometry, isn’t solely reliant on the reflectivity of individual building materials; rather, it’s also influenced by the three-dimensional configuration of the urban landscape (Erell et al. 2012). High albedo or highly reflective materials contribute to UHI mitigation by reflecting incoming solar radiation, which prevents urban surfaces from heating up significantly. Conversely, materials with low albedo and poor reflectivity absorb solar radiation, resulting in elevated surface and air temperatures. Balancing UHI mitigation and adaptation introduces intricate trade-offs, especially concerning albedo materials. While the deployment of cool roofs can effectively reduce summertime heat absorption, modelling results across various U.S. regions have unveiled a paradoxical effect – an unexpected increase in wintertime cooling that escalates heating energy demand (Georgescu et al. 2014). To address this challenge, the authors advocate for the development of adaptive cool roofs endowed with tunable reflective properties, allowing them to cater to seasonal variations. Such innovation could enable the optimisation of albedo materials, mitigating UHI effects during summer while minimising adverse impacts on winter heating demands, thus aligning with both mitigation and adaptation goals.

Development along riverbanks, as a strategy to mitigate UHI and enhance adaptation to rising temperatures, introduces a complex interplay of trade-offs. On one hand, proximity to water bodies offers the potential for cooling effects, with riverbanks serving as natural cool corridors that can temper local temperatures. This can provide relief from extreme heat events, fostering a more habitable urban environment and contributing to adaptation efforts. However, this approach may also entail trade-offs, particularly concerning UHI mitigation. The construction of buildings and infrastructure in these areas can lead to increased heat absorption from urban surfaces, potentially exacerbating UHI effects (Ahmed et al. 2015). Looking at it from a different angle, findings from a spatial optimisation model applied to London, UK, reveal an interesting dynamic. The riverbanks, acting as natural cooling agents (referred to as blue infrastructure), happen to coincide with areas of heightened susceptibility to flooding. Consequently, in an ideal development scenario that takes into account both heat mitigation and flood risk, approximately 75% of the available land in London would be identified as unsuitable for development (Caparros-Midwood et al. 2019).

The implications of this study for UHI mitigation and adaptation are indeed multifaceted. Firstly, it underscores the importance of considering both heat mitigation strategies and flood risk management in urban planning processes to achieve holistic resilience. By recognising the interplay between blue infrastructure, such as riverbanks acting as natural cooling agents, and flood vulnerability, urban planners can develop more effective strategies that simultaneously address UHI effects and minimise flood risks. Additionally, the study emphasises the need for integrated approaches that balance the benefits of heat mitigation with the potential impacts on flood-prone areas, highlighting the complexity of urban environmental management. Overall, this case study underscores the importance of adopting adaptive and context-specific solutions to create sustainable and resilient urban environments in the face of climate change

3.2.2. Buildings

The building sector presents a paradoxical role: it is recognised as the largest source of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, responsible for roughly 40% of such emissions and a comparable share of natural resource consumption worldwide (Abergel et al. 2017; Hamilton et al. 2020). Conversely, the United Nations Environment Program posits that buildings possess the greatest capacity among major emitting sectors to substantially limit GHG emissions sectors (Sbci 2009). Furthermore, given that individuals allocate the majority of their time indoors, whether in their residences or workplaces, it becomes imperative to implement appropriate adaptation measures to ensure the sustenance of indoor thermal comfort. Nonetheless, these strategies for adaptation and mitigation could introduce certain trade-offs. A comprehensive review of existing literature highlights that while numerous measures at the building level are available, their associated potential trade-offs have not been thoroughly investigated (Sharifi 2020).

Passive design strategies in buildings, while offering valuable benefits in terms of mitigating UHI and enhancing adaptation to rising temperatures, can also introduce trade-offs, particularly in relation to increased costs (Hamin and Gurran 2009). Implementing these measures often requires specialised materials, advanced technologies, and meticulous engineering, all of which can elevate construction expenses substantially. Hamin and Gurran (Hamin and Gurran 2009) additionally point out that certain passive design strategies could potentially lead to higher embodied emissions due to the requirement for more energy-intensive materials.Moreover, optimising natural daylighting through appropriate glazing selection can reduce the reliance on artificial lighting and cooling systems. However, selecting glazing with a high Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) to maximise daylight may inadvertently increase solar heat gain, leading to higher cooling demands during hot periods (Santamouris 2016). To mitigate this trade-off, building designers must carefully balance the benefits of natural lighting with the potential increase in cooling energy consumption by selecting glazing materials that optimise both aspects.

In the context of mitigating UHI and adapting to climate challenges, the integration of building codes that prioritise climate resilience emerges as a vital strategy to fortify urban structures against extreme weather events, a key facet of adaptation (Aylett 2015). These codes mandate strict construction standards, emphasising enhanced durability, materials’ resilience, and disaster-resistant designs, resulting in structures better equipped to withstand the impacts of heatwaves and other climate-related hazards. However, it’s important to acknowledge that these commendable efforts towards climate resilience may introduce trade-offs within the UHI mitigation and adaptation. One significant trade-off centres on the potential increase in construction costs (Oster and Quigley 2017). Implementing these resilient building codes often necessitates the use of specialised materials, cutting-edge technologies, extensive structural reinforcements, and meticulous engineering, all of which may contribute to higher upfront expenses compared to conventional building methods. Moreover, the integration of climate-resilient features may also lead to heightened energy consumption within these structures (He 2019). For example, while enhancing resilience, features like thicker insulation or impact-resistant windows may result in increased energy use for heating, cooling, and lighting, aligning with mitigation objectives but potentially posing challenges to adaptation efforts. Balancing the imperatives of UHI mitigation and adaptation with considerations of construction affordability and energy efficiency is a complex undertaking that warrants careful scrutiny and innovative solutions within the realm of building design and urban planning.

Air conditioning (AC) presents some significant trade-offs. According to Kjellstrom and McMichael (Kjellstrom and McMichael 2013), the use of AC in hospitals and the homes of elderly and vulnerable individuals can be seen as an adaptation strategy to address climate change impacts. This approach offers health advantages and may also enhance economic resilience by reducing healthcare costs and improving workforce productivity. However, unless renewable energy sources power these AC systems, it can lead to mitigation trade-offs by increasing energy demand. For instance, in response to the high mortality rates during the 2003 heatwave in France, many homes, especially those of the elderly, had AC units installed, resulting in a surge in energy consumption (Kjellstrom and McMichael 2013). Hence, while upgrading buildings is vital for preserving thermal comfort, it’s equally imperative to steer clear of installing energy-hungry AC systems that depend on non-renewable energy sources to fully realise the advantages of mitigation (Ford et al. 2018). Moreover, it’s worth noting that efficiency improvements from building retrofits may lead to rebound effects, potentially further increasing energy consumption (Santamouris et al. 2017). Although most of the trade-offs linked to AC primarily pertain to mitigation, it’s important to recognise the presence of adaptation trade-offs as well. To illustrate the utilisation of evaporative AC systems may also lead to trade-offs associated with water resources in regions experiencing water scarcity (Coutts et al. 2010).

3.2.3. Green infrastructure

Green infrastructure (GI) in urban environments plays a crucial role in alleviating the adverse UHI effects. The literature has extensively covered a diverse array of GI measures, including green roofs and vertical greening systems in building, green areas and parks, trees and street landscape, and urban agriculture. These measures offer a multitude of ecosystem services and advantages, including the regulation of micro-climates, improved thermal comfort, mitigation of UHI, also they reduce energy consumption for cooling buildings during the summer (Gago et al. 2013; Marando et al. 2022). Consequently, GI measures play a crucial role in both adaptation and mitigation efforts (Kabisch et al. 2016). Noticeable adaptation trade-offs examined in the literature involve the substantial costs associated with implementation and ongoing maintenance (Chang et al. 2021), in addition to health impacts linked to the application of fertilisers and pesticides, which can potentially diminish air and water quality, as well as an increased presence of insects and animals that may serve as carriers of various diseases (Demuzere et al. 2014).

GI projects often play a crucial role in urban areas, simultaneously addressing both mitigation and adaptation to climate change. However, an important trade-off to consider is the phenomenon of green gentrification, which is associated with an increase in property prices (Maia et al. 2020). While these projects can mitigate the effects of climate change by providing green spaces, improving air quality, and reducing heat island effects, they can also inadvertently drive-up property values. As neighbourhoods become more attractive due to the presence of green infrastructure, property prices tend to rise, potentially displacing lower-income residents and altering the social fabric of the community.

The existence of various types of GI and their specific implementations can lead to different sets of trade-offs when it comes to mitigation. For example, the creation and upkeep of high-intensity green roofs, as well as urban forestry and agriculture, can result in significant emissions (Demuzere et al. 2014). These emissions can arise from a variety of sources, such as the energy-intensive processes involved in installing and maintaining green roofs, the use of machinery and transportation in urban forestry efforts, and the application of fertilisers and irrigation in urban agriculture. In relation to this matter, irrigation practices wield significant influence over the thermal dynamics of urban and non-urban landscapes, impacting both UHI mitigation efforts and heatwave patterns (Lam et al. 2020). While research has extensively explored the trade-offs associated with irrigation, conflicting findings have emerged regarding its potential to exacerbate heatwaves. Studies highlight the intricate interplay between irrigation strategies and their consequences for thermal comfort, green space sustainability, and water resource management (Kang and Eltahir 2018). On one hand, irrigation can mitigate UHI intensity, yet on the other, it may intensify heatwave conditions (Thiery et al. 2017). Understanding these complexities is crucial for crafting effective UHI management and climate adaptation strategies, enabling urban planners and policymakers to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by irrigation practices in enhancing urban resilience and mitigating climate impacts.

While expanding GI is a common strategy for both mitigating and adapting to climate change by enhancing urban resilience and providing carbon sequestration benefits, it can also introduce unintended consequences. One notable trade-off is that the expansion of GI can inadvertently lead to higher emissions due to its association with reduced urban density and an increased reliance on cars. When cities prioritise extensive green spaces, they may encourage low-density development patterns that necessitate longer commutes by car, ultimately contributing to higher greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, a noteworthy case comes from Hamin and Gurran’s study (Hamin and Gurran 2009), which highlights how the preservation of urban nature in Port Stephens, located on the mid-northern New South Wales coast, leads to energy-intensive low-density development. Similarly, Germany has reported analogous findings. Studies examining various urban development scenarios in Germany have revealed that when urban green spaces are protected and developed to improve access to green infrastructure, this often results in a larger urban footprint, with potential implications for increased energy consumption, as discussed by Hoymann and Goetzke (Hoymann and Goetzke 2016).

The inclusion of trees in GI projects presents a dual role in both mitigation and adaptation to climate change, but it also comes with trade-offs. On the one hand, trees serve as effective carbon sinks, aiding in the mitigation of GHG emissions by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide. They also provide shade, reduce UHI effects, and improve air quality, contributing to climate adaptation efforts. However, there are trade-offs to consider. In certain instances, the extensive planting of trees can lead to challenges such as increased maintenance costs, potential conflicts with infrastructure, and competition for urban space. Moreover, selecting the appropriate tree species is crucial in minimising trade-offs. Species selection can influence factors such as water requirements, susceptibility to pests and diseases, and the overall effectiveness of trees in providing climate benefits. By carefully considering these trade-offs and making informed choices regarding tree species, urban planners can harness the full potential of trees within GI to achieve both mitigation and adaptation objectives while mitigating potential drawbacks (Demuzere et al. 2014).

3.2.4. Blue infrastructure

Compared to grey and green infrastructure, the utilisation of urban blue infrastructure has received relatively less attention, and its influence on heat reduction has only come under investigation very recently (Lin et al. 2020). Water infrastructure plays a pivotal role in urban areas, influencing both climate change and UHI mitigation and adaptation efforts. However, the pursuit of these goals often leads to complex trade-offs and potential conflicts, necessitating careful planning and consideration. For example, treating and distributing water requires energy, contributing to GHG emissions. Climate-conscious strategies, like water recycling and desalination, can reduce water scarcity but often demand substantial energy inputs, potentially undermining broader climate goals (Paton et al. 2014). Balancing water security with reduced energy use is a delicate equilibrium. The authors propose that while desalination plants are known for their high energy consumption, their inclusion in the water supply system is crucial to enhance system resilience and mitigate risks. Desalination plants offer climate-independent water sources that are less susceptible to various risks. The research demonstrates that alternative measures like rainwater tanks and stormwater harvesting can serve as more favourable adaptation strategies while also minimising the trade-offs associated with mitigation (Paton et al. 2014). By thoughtfully integrating desalination plants with rainwater tanks, ideally connected to rooftops to supply non-potable water, it is possible to reduce trade-offs and strike a balance between adaptation and mitigation efforts. Yet, it’s worth noting that rainwater harvesting systems often come with significant costs, introducing trade-offs related to expenses (Paton et al. 2014). To address this concern, it is recommended to integrate rainwater harvesting systems with approaches like open detention ponds. An economic evaluation conducted by Alves et al. (Alves et al. 2019) demonstrates that the combined benefits of these complementary measures exceed the associated expenses.

Blue infrastructure, akin to irrigation, provides a substantial supply of surface water to cool the urban environment. However, parallels can be drawn with irrigation’s potential to intensify heatwaves. Steeneveld et al. (Steeneveld et al. 2014) conducted research that unveiled a noteworthy finding: the presence of water bodies within urban areas could actually heighten the intensity of the UHI effect. This counterintuitive phenomenon occurs due to the remarkable heat capacity of water, which results in the suppression of diurnal and annual temperature fluctuations. As a consequence, water temperatures tend to remain relatively elevated even after the transition from night today or between seasons.

These trade-offs in the context of UHI and climate change mitigation and adaptation raise significant questions. On one hand, blue infrastructure can contribute positively by offering cooling effects in urban areas, potentially mitigating the UHI effect during hot periods. However, the trade-off lies in the potential for exacerbating UHI effects due to the increased presence of water bodies. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of these trade-offs, it is imperative to address the current dearth of research dedicated to blue infrastructure. The consequences of its presence in the built environment, especially in the context of a changing climate, remain relatively unexplored, leaving policymakers, urban planners, and researchers with an intricate challenge that requires further investigation and consideration.

3.2.5. Urban policies

Policies play a crucial role in shaping how societies address climate change through mitigation and adaptation strategies. Although these strategies frequently entail trade-offs, the literature still lacks a comprehensive examination of the trade-offs associated with urban policies. The literature primarily focuses on the initial aspect related to environmental regulation. The implementation of carbon pricing mechanisms, such as carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems, serves as a means to motivate both businesses and individuals to decrease their emissions. These policies have the added advantage of generating revenue that can be directed towards climate action initiatives. For instance, New York City’s carbon pricing programme imposes fees on major emitters, with the proceeds allocated to funding renewable energy projects and improvements in public transportation. Nevertheless, environmental regulations can sometimes come into conflict with the immediate requirements for adaptation. As pointed out by Dercon (Dercon 2014), the adverse consequences of such policies might outweigh the advantages, particularly because individuals with limited economic resources and human capital, often the less affluent, may struggle to afford the increased costs associated with these policies or may find it challenging to access more expensive resources and technologies.

Smart city plans often focus on energy-efficient infrastructure, reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Barcelona’s smart city initiatives, including smart lighting and waste management systems, have reduced energy use and emissions while improving urban living conditions. Nonetheless, smart city technologies may exacerbate the digital divide, leaving vulnerable communities without access to essential services (Okafor et al. 2023). Governance strategies should prioritise equitable access to smart city benefits, ensuring that no one is left behind.

Another aspect that has been discussed in the literature is investing in low-carbon infrastructure such as public transportation and energy-efficient buildings, which is a critical component for UHI and climate change mitigation (Granoff et al. 2016). However, although it hasn’t been much addressed in the literature, this review argues that these mitigation strategies come with inherent trade-offs, particularly in terms of budget allocation. Investing in the development of low-carbon infrastructure often requires substantial initial capital and ongoing maintenance costs. Building and maintaining efficient public transportation systems, for example, can demand significant financial resources, including funding for constructing infrastructure, purchasing vehicles, and subsidising public transit operations. Similarly, ensuring that buildings meet energy-efficient standards necessitates additional costs for materials, technologies, and design expertise.

3.3. Conflicts

Although various adaptation and mitigation strategies have been identified, the literature has only addressed a limited number of potentially conflicting measures. This could suggest that conflicting circumstances are infrequent. Nevertheless, it might also be attributed to a scarcity of empirical research examining the interactions between adaptation measures. Table 3 illustrates the conflicts between UHI mitigation and adaptation strategies concerning land use, urban form, buildings, and green/blue infrastructure, highlighting the need for an integrated approach to urban planning and development.

Table 3. The conflicts between UHI mitigation and adaptation strategies. Source Author.

Cluster	Mitigation	Adaptation	Conflict
Land Use Planning	Optimizing land use patterns to reduce heat-absorbing surfaces, such as asphalt and concrete. This typically includes encouraging higher-density development, mixed land uses, and preserving green spaces.	Preserving open spaces, parks, and green belts to provide cooling and resilience against extreme heat events. These strategies may lead to lower-density development and discourage urban densification.	The need for increased density to mitigate UHI clashes with the desire to preserve open spaces for adaptation. Striking a balance between these conflicting goals requires careful planning and consideration of local context.
Urban Form and Building Design	Altering urban form and building design to maximize shade, reduce the use of heat-absorbing materials, and enhance natural ventilation through compact and well-designed urban spaces.	Encourage more robust, heat-resistant building materials and designs that prioritize thermal comfort during extreme heat events. This could involve the construction of heat-resilient buildings with enhanced insulation and shading	The need for UHI mitigation, which favors certain building and urban design approaches, clashes with the adaptations that prioritize resilient construction materials and designs.
Green and Blue Infrastructure	Green and blue infrastructure play a critical role in UHI mitigation by providing shade, evaporative cooling, and reducing heat absorption.	They enhance urban resilience by providing cooling effects, reducing stormwater runoff, and mitigating flooding.	Allocating resources and space for green and blue infrastructure. While both strategies are essential, limited resources may force decision-makers to prioritize one over the other, potentially hindering a holistic UHI management approach.

Efforts to combat climate change and UHI require a nuanced understanding of the conflicts that can emerge between mitigation and adaptation strategies, particularly concerning land use, urban form, buildings, and green/blue infrastructure. These conflicts often result from the different spatial and operational priorities of each strategy. To illustrate, research indicates that raising population density is a specific action that is likely to create conflicts, especially with GI initiatives like the establishment of parks, open spaces, and urban agriculture. This conflict can have significant implications as it might increase vulnerability to risks associated with the UHI effect and urban flooding, while also potentially reducing equitable access to ecosystem services provided by UGI for all residents. Furthermore, increasing density may also clash with other strategies, such as community-level composting, certain passive building design approaches, and the decentralisation of energy supply to promote the adoption of renewable energy. When it comes to generating renewable energy, densely populated urban areas face limitations in terms of per-capita roof space, resulting in a lower potential for per-capita renewable energy production compared to less densely populated areas (Hamin and Gurran 2009). To address these conflicts, cities should adopt a comprehensive, integrated approach to UHI management that considers both mitigation and adaptation goals, while also accounting for local context and community needs. Successful urban planning and development will depend on finding innovative solutions that harmonise these seemingly conflicting strategies to create more resilient, sustainable, and livable cities in the face of rising temperatures and climate change. In the subsequent section, we present several of the methods and approaches that have been examined in the literature to address the conflicts and trade-offs identified.

4. Strategies and techniques for managing conflicts and balancing trade-offs

As evidenced by this comprehensive review, the interplay between climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies presents a nuanced and intricate landscape. When pursued independently, various sectors and stakeholders may adopt measures that inadvertently conflict or counteract each other’s effects. These conflicts and trade-offs not only challenge the effectiveness of individual efforts but also carry far-reaching implications for broader objectives related to equity, public health, and disaster risk reduction, as outlined in prominent local and global policy frameworks such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Thus, the imperative arises for integrated approaches that foster effective communication among diverse actors and sectors, each driven by their unique interests and priorities. Such integrated strategies are essential for achieving a harmonious balance between mitigation and adaptation efforts (Landauer et al. 2015).

Effectively managing conflicts and striking a balance between mitigating UHI and adapting to climate change necessitates a comprehensive approach deeply embedded in integrated urban planning and design. This approach involves seamlessly integrating UHI mitigation and adaptation strategies into the urban landscape, taking into account local climate conditions, geographical considerations, and active community involvement. An especially noteworthy approach highlighted in the literature is the practice of integrated policymaking, where various scenarios are rigorously assessed to identify measures that offer mutually beneficial outcomes (Xu et al. 2019).

Xu et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive study assessing trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation in various urban development scenarios in Xiamen, China. Four distinct scenarios were examined: the Business as Usual (BAU) scenario, which maintained historical land use trends; the Adaptation Scenario (AS), which prioritised decentralised, low-density development with abundant green spaces to combat flooding and the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect; the Mitigation Scenario (MS), aiming to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through compact, mixed-use development; and the Combined Scenario (CS), striving for a balance between adaptation and mitigation, featuring a polycentric urban layout with moderate density and green spaces. The modelling results unveiled crucial insights: the AS reduced vulnerability to UHI and flooding but raised GHG emissions. Conversely, the MS lowered emissions but exacerbated UHI effects and flood risks. Notably, the CS, which integrated both adaptation and mitigation strategies, emerged as the most effective approach. It achieved a reduction in per capita GHG emissions, minimised flood exposure, and curtailed UHI intensity when compared to the BAU scenario (Xu et al. 2019). This research underscores the importance of considering both adaptation and mitigation simultaneously in urban planning to address the complex challenges of climate change and urban sustainability.

5. Gaps identified from the literature

In conducting this review on trade-offs and conflicts between urban heat island (UHI) mitigation and adaptation strategies, several criteria were considered to identify and address existing research gaps. Firstly, the relevance of the studies to the overarching research question was paramount. Studies were selected based on their direct contribution to understanding the various types of trade-offs and conflicts between UHI mitigation and adaptation measures. Additionally, the methodological rigour of the studies was evaluated to ensure the reliability and validity of the findings. Studies employing robust research designs, such as empirical investigations, modelling approaches, and case studies, were given preference. Furthermore, the geographical scope and scale of the studies were taken into account to ensure a comprehensive coverage of different urban contexts and spatial levels. Moreover, the temporal aspect was considered to include both contemporary and historical perspectives on UHI management strategies. Lastly, efforts were made to include studies from diverse disciplinary backgrounds, such as urban planning, environmental science, climatology, and public health, to provide a holistic understanding of the subject matter. By adhering to these criteria, this review aims to fill existing research gaps and contribute to the advancement of knowledge on UHI mitigation and adaptation strategies.

As urban areas face increasingly pressing challenges posed by climate change and the UHI phenomenon, there has been a substantial body of research dedicated to investigating strategies for mitigation and adaptation. However, this study takes a focused approach by delving into the intricate intricacies and potential conflicts that can impede the smooth integration of UHI adaptation and mitigation strategies. This review highlights significant gaps in current research, emphasising the need for future studies to address these critical areas.

First, a notable gap in the existing literature is the limited integration of adaptation and mitigation strategies in the context of climate change and UHI. Many studies tend to focus on either adaptation or mitigation in isolation, which may not fully capture the potential trade-offs and synergies that can arise from combined approaches. Research that explicitly explores integrated strategies and their outcomes is needed to bridge this gap.

Second, while there are tools and frameworks available for assessing the individual impacts of adaptation and mitigation measures, there is a dearth of comprehensive assessment tools that consider both aspects simultaneously. Developing holistic assessment methodologies that account for potential conflicts and trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation measures would be a valuable contribution to the field.

Third, much of the existing literature relies on modelling and theoretical frameworks to explore trade-offs and conflicts between adaptation and mitigation. There is a need for more empirical studies that draw on real-world data and case studies to provide practical insights into the challenges and opportunities of simultaneously addressing UHI and CC in urban settings.

Forth, many studies in this area tend to focus primarily on technical aspects and often overlook the social and equity dimensions of adaptation and mitigation efforts. Understanding how these strategies impact vulnerable populations and contribute to social equity or disparities is essential for crafting effective policies and interventions.

Fifth, the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of adaptation and mitigation measures are crucial considerations. However, the literature often lacks longitudinal studies that track the outcomes and unintended consequences of these strategies over time. Long-term monitoring and evaluation are needed to understand the evolving nature of trade-offs and conflicts

Finally, while some studies acknowledge the importance of policy and governance frameworks in addressing adaptation and mitigation conflicts, there is limited in-depth analysis of these aspects. Research that delves into the governance structures, policy incentives, and regulatory frameworks that facilitate or hinder integrated approaches is essential for informing effective decision-making.

6. Conclusion

The point was made in this paper that the concentration of people and the intensity of their activities in cities make cities generate, absorb and emit heat and GHG, turning cities into what scholars call UHIs. As UHIs, cities contribute to global warming and climate change. In turn, global warming and climate change affect human lives and the environment in ways that are increasingly alarming. Given these impacts, societal stakeholders, individually and collaboratively, are innovating technologically, politically, and in other activity realms to combat the menace of climate change. A plethora of initiatives exist, and continue to be formulated, to manage the impacts of climate change. The initiatives are clustered into two categories, namely, mitigation and adaptation. The review of these strategies in this chapter shows that, in summary, mitigation strategies aim to prevent or avoid the impacts of climate change, while adaptation strategies aim to help society cope with, or adapt to the impacts after they occur. In managing the impacts at the front- or back-end, cities face trade-offs and conflicts, some of which were discussed in this paper. The paper reviewed ideas and examples or cases of how some cities around the world decide on trade-offs and manage conflicts. The paper posits that awareness of cases of these trade-offs and conflicts should provide cities with knowledge and insights about how to manage both.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Raghad Almashhour

Raghad Almashhour is a PhD candidate in Engineering Systems Management, with specialization in Sustainable Construction Management, at American University of Sharjah, UAE. She holds professional accreditations in PMP, LEED, and PEARL. Her research agenda and publications focus on the intersection of sustainability, the built environment and public policy.

Jerry Kolo

Jerry Kolo PhD, is a professor of Urban Planning at the College of Architecture, Art and Design at American University of Sharjah, UAE. He is Program Academic Coordinator of the Master of Urban Planning program. He has extensive consulting and public service track records with municipal and non-profit agencies. His teaching and research specializations are sustainable community planning, land use and environmental planning, and urban economic development.

Salwa Beheiry

Salwa Beheiry PhD, is a professor of Civil Engineering at American University of Sharjah, UAE. She coordinates the Sustainable Construction and Project Management track of the doctoral program in Engineering Systems Management. Program at AUS. She has extensive consulting and industry experiences in the construction field. Her teaching and research specializations are sustainable construction processes, management and principles.