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Review Article

Causes, consequences, and treatments of induced degradation of solar PV: a comprehensive review

Hussein A. Kazema Sohar University, Sohar, Oman
,
Miqdam T. Chaichanb Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Research Center, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq
,
Ali H. A. Al-Waelic Engineering Department, American University of Iraq, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Sulaimani, Iraq
,
Warda T. Aloqabd Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Zallaq, Kingdom of Bahrain
&
Waheeb E. Alnasere Department of Natural Resources and Environment, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Kingdom of BahrainCorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5947-4508
ORCID Icon
Pages 177-191 | Received 06 Jul 2023, Accepted 11 Feb 2024, Published online: 22 Feb 2024

Abstract

Photovoltaic (PV) modules’ efficiency decreases due to the presence of external electrical potentials due to the phenomenon known as potential induced degradation (PID). Powerlines or other external sources can generate this potential, or solar cells themselves can generate it through their electric field. An electric field changes the internal electrical properties of a PV module, which can result in a 30% loss of efficiency. PID can be prevented by designing PV modules to be PID-resistant, or by designing the system to minimize the electric field. Materials such as insulating materials, coatings on PV modules, and shielding materials can achieve this. A literature review is presented here, which analyzes the proposed causes of degradation effects as well as the methodological approaches employed in the test. This article presents and compares studies conducted at the cell, microunit, and module level. Several possible preventive measures are also discussed to prevent PV modules from degrading. In addition, modern mechanisms and techniques for mitigating PID effects were reviewed and discussed. This review discusses the main results and analyzes the simulations adopted by the studies, in addition to providing information about the experiments carried out. For the development of solar technology and to increase its spread in the world, it is crucial to understand how photovoltaic cells degrade and to identify other challenges.

1. Introduction

A solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) is manufactured mainly from silicon, which is the second material available in nature (Sopian, Al-Waeli, & Kazem, Citation2020). The technology has been proven for many decades. The solar cell is a small device that converts solar irradiance to DC electricity. Connecting cells in series and parallel to increase voltage and current will produce a PV module, while connecting PV module will produce panels and connecting panels will produce array as shown in (Al-Waeli, Sopian, Kazem, & Chaichan, Citation2017; Chaichan & Kazem, Citation2015). Several factors have contributed to the decline in solar PV electricity costs over the past decade:

Figure 1. Solar cell, module, panel, and array.

Figure 1. Solar cell, module, panel, and array.

  • Technology Advances: Solar PV technology has improved efficiency and reduced manufacturing costs. Solar panels produce more energy because of innovations in materials, cell designs, and manufacturing processes (Allouhi, Rehman, Buker, & Said, Citation2023).

  • Production scale: As solar panel demand has risen, so has the production scale, causing economies of scale. Solar PV is often more cost-effective with larger production volumes (Gerarden, Citation2023).

  • Solar manufacturers and installers have gained experience as the industry matured, increasing their efficiency, and reducing project costs. As experience increases, processes become more efficient, and costs are reduced. This is called the "learning curve" effect (Batool, Zhao, Irfan, Ullah, & Işik, Citation2023).

  • Solar components are manufactured and transported more efficiently with the help of supply chain optimization. Costs can be reduced by streamlining the supply chain (Zhao, Yu, & Zhang, Citation2023).

  • Solar energy development and deployment has been supported by many governments around the world with incentives and subsidies. Solar installation costs can be offset by tax credits, feed-in tariffs, and other financial incentives (Al-Sharafi, Alhussein, Ali, & Aurangzeb, Citation2023).

  • Manufacturers and installers of solar energy have faced increased competition because of its popularity. Cost reductions have resulted from this competition, resulting in innovation and efficiency (Aïd, Bahlali, & Creti, Citation2023).

  • Consumers and businesses can now adopt solar energy without high upfront costs thanks to new financial models and financing mechanisms, such as power purchase agreements (PPAs) and solar leasing. PV systems have been widely adopted because of this.

  • A key factor driving down costs of solar technology is research and development. Research focuses on improving solar cell efficiency, exploring new materials, and improving overall system performance (Solak & Irmak, Citation2023).

  • Solar Globalization: Globalization has enabled manufacturers to source components from multiple regions, maximizing supply chain efficiency and taking advantage of regional cost disparities (Chen et al., Citation2023).

These factors have created a virtuous cycle that drives solar PV costs down and makes it an attractive and economically viable option. Technological advancements and the maturing industry will continue this trend.

Many parameters affect the PV module productivity, efficiency, and performance. Some of the mentioned parameters are related to the environment at the location such as solar irradiance, humidity, temperature, wind speed, dust, etc. (Alnasser, Mahdy, Abass, Chaichan, & Kazem, Citation2020). Also, some parameters related to the PV system design, PV technology, used materials, potential induced degradation, etc. (Al-Waeli, Kazem, Sopian, & Chaichan, Citation2017). lists some of the studies contributions and limitations focused on the PV parameters degradation.

Table 1. A review of recent studies and research gaps regarding PV degradation and aging.

In principle, most of the parameters produce degradation of the PV module in different levels. The “Potential Induced Degradation” (PID) occurred in the PV module due to the potential difference between the solar cells and other materials used within the PV module such as frame, glass, etc. (Yilmaz et al., Citation2022). PID produces a leakage current so that negative and positive ions migrate to the frame and solar cell surface, respectively. This situation led to “polluting” the solar cell and producing power degradation (posses), which reach up to 20%. The effect may take months or years to be noticed (B. Li et al., Citation2021). The PID is affected by the environmental parameters such as humidity and temperature from one side and the PV technology and system configuration from the other side. The increase of humidity and temperature will increase the PID effect. Also, the position of the PV module/panel within the PV system/array/plant is essential in developing the PID effect. The idea is how much negative is the panel with respect to the earthing is taken into consideration that more negative panel is more PID effect and more risk (Ma et al., Citation2022).

The chemical composition of the anti-reflective coating and glass has a critical impact on PID. The conducted research on PID effect shows different level impact on PV technologies such as crystalline silicon (Yamaguchi et al., Citation2021), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) (Yilmaz et al., Citation2022), silicon heterojunction (Yamaguchi, Yamamoto, Ohshita, Ohdaira, & Masuda, Citation2020), monofacial (B. Li et al., Citation2021), biafacial (Sporleder et al., Citation2019), perovskite, dye-sensitized, and organic photovoltaic (Akcaoğlu, Martinopoulos, Koidis, Kiymaz, & Zafer, Citation2019), mono and multi-crystalline (Kwembur, Mccleland, Dyk, & Vorster, Citation2020), etc.

The PID phenomena lacks information and became interesting recently due to the huge investment in solar photovoltaics in the hot and humid countries in the Middle East and Africa. Also, the increase of PV module power rating (>600 W) complicates the problem. The losses and failure risk increased and were noticed in some PV plants and systems. This study will focus on PID phenomena, testing, mechanism, recovery, and mitigation in terms of recent studies in the literature. The study also discussed the observations, evaluation, and comparison between conducted research in literature.

Various articles and reports have addressed defects in PV modules, methods for their detection and characterization, as well as PID mitigations (Khan et al., Citation2023; Azam et al., Citation2023; Makhija & Bohra, Citation2023). In this paper, individual topics are correlated as a basis for further research. Besides finding the most cost-effective inspection method, it aims to assess best practices in dealing with PID defects. illustrates how the paper is organized: Section 2 deals with testing methods and field observations. The phenomenology of PID is described in Section 3. Section 4 describes mechanisms of degradation. A detailed explanation of mitigation approaches is provided in Section 5. A final definition of PID recovery will be presented in Section VI, while a summary and outlook will be presented in Section 7.

Figure 2. Article structure.

Figure 2. Article structure.

2. Testing methods and field observations

The field observation of grid-connected PV systems in different locations found that the PID mainly depends on the position of the PV module within the string and the ground configuration. It was observed that the PV module at the string negative pole suffers more losses due to PID than other modules. It was reported that the camera based electroluminescence (EL) imaging useful to measure the field PID (Yilmaz et al., Citation2022). In addition, the temperature, and humidity play a critical rule in increasing the PID as claimed by Berghold, Koch, Leers, and Grunow (Citation2013). The field observation motivated the “International Electrotechnical Commission” (IEC) to standardize a testing procedure for PID such as IEC 62804 (Bora et al., Citation2021) and IEC61215 (Firman, Cáceres, González Mayans, & Vera, Citation2022). There are two testing methods, one at solar cell level, and the other on PV module level as explained in the next subsections.

2.1. Solar cell level testing

For analyzing defects and determining their root causes, laboratory analysis methods are used. PID at the finer levels has been measured with small unit samples or cells (Muzzillo et al., Citation2018; Muzzillo et al., Citation2019; Yilmaz et al., Citation2022; Kobayashi, Linh, & Kimura, Citation2023). It is important to emphasize that laboratory studies on small samples do not reflect actual field operating conditions. Additionally, the precise layering of modules may not be present in these samples. PID was not affected by packaging in these cell tests. A high electrical resistance glass panel or encapsulation can prevent such deterioration (Jahandardoost, Citation2023; Sun et al., Citation2022). Studies conducted in the field and those conducted in the laboratory may not be compatible due to this issue.

The solar cell level testing performed on microanalytic studies for PID inside the lab. Lausch, Naumann, Breitenstein, et al. (Citation2014) proposed a PID test at a solar cell level. The authors claimed that PID of the shunting type influences depletion region recombination, and parallel resistance. show the PID effect considering electroluminescence (EL), and dark lock-in thermography (DLIT) images, respectively. illustrated PID degradation on 4 × 4 cm2 solar cell, where a strong decreased EL signal between busbars is shown in the white circle. shows the DLIT image of the cell, where a strong shunts in the PID affected area which is in line with Bauer et al. (Citation2012). The solar testing proposed by Lausch, Naumann, Breitenstein, et al. (Citation2014) is shown in . To make sure a constant temperature when conducting the test, a “temperature-controlled aluminum” chuck placed below the solar cell. Also, a glass sheet and foil were added on the front of the solar cell. To measure the electrical parameters, an electrical contact added to the solar cell and a block metal placed on the whole system to make sure a uniform voltage applied across the solar cell throughout the test. A high voltage then applied, and a positive and negative polarity connected to the frame and block, respectively. The current density-voltage characteristics recorded throughout the test. It is worth mentioned that (Alonso-Garcia, Hacke, Glynn, Muzzillo, & Mansfield, Citation2019) claimed that more sever PID observed if high voltage applied from back compared to front side.

Figure 3. PID degraded full-square Si solar cell (a) EL image, (b) DLIT image, (c) proposed testing system.

Figure 3. PID degraded full-square Si solar cell (a) EL image, (b) DLIT image, (c) proposed testing system.

2.2. Photovoltaic module level testing

Electric fields inside PV units are stronger, so the loss of electroluminescence occurs at the edges and close to the frame. There is a normal variation in pressure across the area of the module. A grounded terminal can be extended across the entire module to uniformly distribute pressure. A decomposition test such as this can speed up the decomposition process and facilitate its analysis. As explained in IEC 62804-1, there is an alternative PID test setup that involves the addition of conductive grounded layers on top and back of the module. Metal plates or foils can be used for this layer. The results of these tests showed that comparing high voltages applied to the aluminum plate on the back or front wall of the PV modules with traditional PID tests revealed a greater loss of power (Benghanem, Boulhidja, & Mellit, Citation2022; Boulhidja et al., Citation2020).

The PID test usually conducted to make sure that the PV will withstand degradation because of the high voltage in the solar power plant (Firman et al., Citation2022). The objectives of PV module PID test is to apply high voltage between the frame and PV surface to check the PID level. For the test a high voltage DC source (up to 1000 V) (Yamaguchi et al., Citation2021), volt-ampere meter, sensors & data loggers to measure temperature (25 ± 1 °C) & humidity (preferable <5%) are needed as shown in . For temperature and humidity control, the IEC 62804-1 standard needs to be followed. The PID experiment was conducted to measure the maximum voltage the PV can withstand with respect to the ground. The shunt resistance is used to measure the leakage current. It is worth mentioning that double the maximum system voltage must apply for 7 days continuously.

Figure 4. PV module PID testing system.

Figure 4. PV module PID testing system.

2.3. IEC standard acceptance

There is a debate between researchers and scientists about the importance of using and following the IEC 62804-1 standard through the PID test. The IEC 62804-1 approved 60 °C temperature, 85% relative humidity, applied system voltage, and 96 h testing time (Bora et al., Citation2021). Also, due to the indoor and outdoor test the correlations must be accurate and follow the same procedures to make sure results are efficacy. It is worth advisable to have more than one cycle of PID test.

3. PID phenomenology

To understand the PID phenomena it is important to understand what happened to the electrical and physical behavior of the PV through the test. The leakage current follow between PV module frame and the ground could represent effect of PID phenomena (Voswinckel, Mikolajick, & Wesselak, Citation2020). The leakage current may follow through the substrate glass, cover glass/or edge sealing/or substrate glass and the encapsulant (Yilmaz et al., Citation2022). It is found that the main leakage current follow through the cover and substrate glass as confirmed by Harvey et al. (Citation2019). As mentioned, temperature and humidity must be neutralized so that they do not disturb the results. As example the increase of the humidity will reflect on the increasing the conductivity and more current to follow. From the other side the type of material used will reflect on the conducted current (Voswinckel et al., Citation2020). shows PID test results for PV module power verses transfer charges. The relationship is inverse and could be clearer using linear-log graph. It is worth mentioning that once the characteristics known for a specific PV module in the indoor test than the outdoor test can be predicted.

Figure 5. PID test results for PV module power verses transfer charges.

Figure 5. PID test results for PV module power verses transfer charges.

PV modules with high air humidity are more susceptible to leakage currents because the glass surface becomes more conductive. When dew drops are present, this flow peaks in the first morning. During the middle of the day, when PV temperature is at its peak, leakage currents increase as well (Berghold et al., Citation2013). PID and total leaked charge over time are directly correlated, according to a number of studies (X. Li et al., Citation2023; Voswinckel et al., Citation2020; Molto et al., Citation2023). The possibility of PID recovery in some cases has been shown by Lausch, Naumann, Graff, et al. (Citation2014) (Masuda & Hara, Citation2017).

illustrate the effect of PID on I-V characteristics before and after applying voltage stress for 96 h (Kwembur et al., Citation2020). The decrease of the I-V curve after applying PID test shows that there is decrease of fill factor (FF) and maximum power point (Pmpp). The decrease of series resistance Rs reflected on open circuit voltage Voc.

Figure 6. I–V characteristics before and after PID test.

Figure 6. I–V characteristics before and after PID test.

4. Mechanisms of degradation

The mechanisms of degradation have been investigated and reported in many studies by researchers. However, it is found that there are different observations depending on the PV technology used such as “crystalline silicon” c-Si, “polycrystalline” p-Si, “monocrystalline” m-Si, “Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2” CIGS, etc. illustrates explanations of the PID mechanism of some studies in literature. It was observed that with high temperature (85 °C) and small (50 V) or large (1000 V) applied voltages, the PID test was conducted for some PV modules. It was observed that there is an immigration of Sodium from glass and accumulated on the ZnO, which reflects on the increase of the electrical resistivity, shunting, harming the pn junction, and reduce the lifetime of the PV module. It is worth mentioning that the main degradation investigated on Voc, Isc, FF, and efficiency.

Table 2. PID tested parameters and mechanisms of degradation.

PID degradation mechanisms are different depending on the type of photovoltaic module. As sodium accumulates on the surface of the cell, it causes stacking disruption, resulting in surface polarization causing high surface recombination on the c-Si surface (Zhang, Wang, et al., Citation2019; Ohdaira, Komatsu, Yamaguchi, & Masuda, Citation2023). As sodium migrates down to the microscopic level, PID occurs in CIGS technology. Before and after PID stress, sodium concentration was measured by glow discharge optical emission spectrometry (GD-OES) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). Further measurements include current voltage (I–V) and capacitance voltage (C–V) during experimental tests. In , some studies addressed this issue. Many scenarios are considered to explain the PID degradation mechanism. shows four PID degradation mechanism scenarios for CIGS technology.

Figure 7. Summary of the degradation mechanism of PID.

Figure 7. Summary of the degradation mechanism of PID.

Unpackaged cells measure 5 × 5 cm2 in air at 85 °C and applied a potential difference of 50 V. (Fjällström, Citation2015) demonstrated that the glass substrate was responsible for the increase in sodium concentration. In addition, increasing sodium could even destroy the p-n junction by deteriorating the cell’s electrical properties. A PID stressing procedure was applied to unpacked modules of 10 × 10 cm2 at a temperature of 70 °C and a relative humidity of 10% in Salomon et al. (Citation2019). GD-OES analysis showed elevated sodium concentrations in the CdS buffer layer and CIGS absorption layer. Soduim separation was achieved after long zinc oxide: aluminum testing. Free carriers can be captured by sodium-induced defects, leading to higher depletion displays and leaky junctions (Xiao et al., Citation2019). There may be interstitial defects within CdS layers due to sodium accumulation at the CIGS/CdS interface (Muzzillo et al., Citation2018). As a result, carrier concentration may be reduced. Recombination and conversion can be stimulated by excess sodium.

PID damage to glass substrates peaks when the aluminum grounding placed on it is negative, according to some studies. Moreover, the voltage is applied with negative polarity (Farrukh ibne Mahmood, Citation2023; Makhija & Bohra, Citation2023). Consequently, if the bias polarity is positive (+1000 V), linear power degradation appears only in small units. The damage caused by PID can be completely cured by light soaking. TCO layer accumulation caused this condition, according to the study.

In Muzzillo et al.. (2022) experiments, the authors applied a voltage of 1000 V at 85 °C to test samples and measured the PID in the dark with an I-V measurement. A two-stage process occurs during PID damage, according to the researchers. In the first instance, sodium migrates into the CdS/ZnO layer and increases saturation current. It decreases the concentrations of ionized carriers and the combined potential. As the shunt resistance decreases, the resistance of the shunt increases.

There was a visual correlation between PID in PV systems and TCO layer degradation (Sun et al., Citation2022; Islam et al., Citation2023). The high defect density introduced by sodium appears to result in PID because of enhanced recombination (Yamaguchi et al. Citation2018). Across grain boundaries, sodium diffuses intralayer in polycrystalline materials, according to Harvey et al. (Citation2019). Several samples were analyzed by three-dimensional tomography (TOF-SIMS) to reach this conclusion. At 85 °C and 10% relative humidity, sodium content at grain boundaries of small, packed modules was found to be significantly higher than at grain cores at 1-D depth. The sodium diffuses at grain boundaries and migrates through the absorbent layer to cause PID.

5. Mitigation approaches

PID is a phenomenon that affects PV modules, reducing their efficiency and causing a decrease in the amount of energy they generate. The main cause of PID is the presence of high electrical potential differences between the frame and other metallic components of the module and the exposed surfaces of the cells. This difference creates electric fields that cause the charge carriers in the cells to drift away from the collection contacts, reducing their effectiveness and leading to a lower power output. To mitigate the effects of PID, it is important to reduce the potential difference between the frame and other components of the module and the surface of the cells. This can be done by using conductive contacts, such as anodized aluminum frames, or by using insulated grounding systems. It is also important to reduce the humidity and temperature of the environment around the modules, as these can contribute to the formation of electric fields. This can be done by providing adequate ventilation and by shielding the modules from direct sunlight.

Finally, it is important to use modules that are designed to be resistant to PID. Many PV module manufacturers now offer PID-resistant modules, which are designed to be less susceptible to the effects of PID. illustrate some mitigation methods used to reduce the PID effects (Salomon et al., Citation2019).

Figure 8. PID mitigation methods on system level.

Figure 8. PID mitigation methods on system level.

5.1. Mitigation on PV system level

When selecting modules, it is important to make sure that the rated power and performance are within the required limits. Additionally, modules should be selected based on their temperature coefficient and spectral response, as well as the type of junction box used. Proper installation is also important in order to mitigate PID. This includes using appropriate connectors and cabling, using a proper sealant to prevent leakage, and keeping the module surface clean and free of dirt and dust. Finally, proper maintenance is essential to preventing PID. This includes regular cleaning and inspection of the modules, as well as regular testing to ensure the performance is not deteriorating due to PID. Additionally, any faulty components should be replaced as soon as possible in order to prevent further damage.

The electrical layout and system installation design determine the development of PID. A photovoltaic chain consists of photovoltaic modules of varying polarity, position, and grounding. It may be possible to eliminate PID damage by using the correct inverter technology and a grounding system appropriate for a limited number of cells in series. Transformer-based micro-inverters are currently used to ground the negative and positive poles of PV strings. A transformer-based micro-inverter with only the negative pole grounded can provide a technically acceptable solution to the PID issue that affects the modules in the negative pole (as explained previously) (Badran & Dhimish, Citation2023).

A potential difference between the photovoltaic cells and the ground is observed in many studies that are based on grounded frames and supporting bars. Using different designs of PV modules, Hacke (Citation2017) measured PID. Compared to four-frame PV units, the two-frame units degrade less rapidly. Furthermore, the back-bar units did not degrade over time despite prolonged bias exposure. Compared to pinned and backguard modules, corrosion is more severe for c-Si modules with different mounting designs (Weber, Hinz, Leers, Grunow, & Podlowski, Citation2017).

5.2. Mitigation on PV module and cell level

At the module level, PID of PV modules can be mitigated by several strategies, such as using module frames made of conductive materials and adding bypass diodes. The conductive materials help to reduce the electric fields inside the module, thus reducing the potential for PID. Bypass diodes are used to short-circuit cells that are under reverse bias, thus preventing them from being subjected to PID. At the solar cell level, PID can be mitigated by using cells with anti-reflection coatings and passivating layers. These coatings and layers reduce the electric fields at the cell surfaces and thus reduce the potential for PID. Additionally, PV cells can be encapsulated in a material that provides an insulating layer between the electric field and the cell, further reducing the potential for PID (Harvey et al., Citation2019).

To determine what combination of materials is most resistant to PID, several studies examined a variety of materials. PID damage can be mitigated by using glass materials that contain no alkali or heavier alkali metals (such as potassium, rubidium, and cesium) instead of sodium. Several packaging materials from different production sources were tested for c-Si PV systems in order to determine the effect of material type on PID behavior. A low-polarity and low-water-absorption material increases the resistance of PID (Zhang, Wang, et al., Citation2019). A cover glass made of a high-resistance material can reduce leakage current. A recent study showed that EVA encapsulation can effectively reduce leakage current by about a half order of magnitude as compared to PVB encapsulation (Zhao, Yu, & Zhang, Citation2023).

Using two small samples under standardized conditions, Yamaguchi et al. (Citation2015) examined the behavior of PID using multiple packaging materials. During a 14-day experiment with small units containing traditional EVA capsules, 80% of their efficiency was lost. With respect to the units enclosed in an IO plastic envelope with high temperature resistance (ionomer, Tamapoly HM-52), their PID resistance was higher with only a small loss of efficiency.

In order to preserve the solar stack, Muzzillo et al. (Citation2018) explored the possibility of depositing a barrier layer to prevent sodium from entering the photovoltaic cell. A diffusion barrier of Al2O3 between the SLG substrate and the molybdenum back contact had little impact on leakage current found by Mozilo et al. Bias application resulted in sodium migrating to sodium-deficient areas, thereby increasing cell efficiency. Over time, however, the efficiency of the absorbent layer degraded because excess sodium was present (Salomon et al., Citation2019).

6. PID recovery

Recovery of a degraded PV module is possible through a number of methods. These include:

  1. Reducing the system voltage: Reducing the voltage of the PV system can reduce the electric potential of the module and allow for some recovery of power output.

  2. Applying a reverse bias: Placing a reverse bias on the module can help to discharge the accumulated electrical charges and allow for some recovery of power output.

  3. Adding an external resistor: Adding an external resistor to the system can help to reduce the electric potential of the module and allow for some recovery of power output.

  4. Applying a DC voltage: Applying a DC voltage to the module can help to reduce the electric potential of the module and allow for some recovery of power output.

  5. Applying an AC voltage

The main recovery conditions of PID are (Fj et al., Citation2015):

  1. Reverse Bias Stress: Reverse bias stress involves applying a reverse voltage to the photovoltaic module in order to induce a current and restore the module’s efficiency. This method requires extra wiring and components and can be costly, but it is known to be effective in reducing the effects of PID.

  2. Thermal Management: The use of active or passive thermal management techniques to reduce the operating temperature of a photovoltaic module can be effective in reducing the effects of PID. This can include the use of materials with better thermal conductivity, such as aluminum, or the use of airflow and shading.

  3. Reduced Current Density: By reducing the current density of the module, the effects of PID can be reduced. This can be achieved by increasing the module size and/or spacing the modules further apart. Reducing the current density can reduce the effects of PID, but it can also reduce the efficiency of the module. A polarity reversal technique (i.e. implementing positive bias) recovered the electrical performance of all the tested samples (at the cell and small unit levels) (Muzzillo et al., Citation2022; Yamaguchi et al., Citation2015). The electrical field generated by the applied bias and thermal energy may have caused sodium to move back into the glass panels. Using a PID test of 1000 V for 7 days, Yamaguchi et al. found a recovery of Voc, FF and ɳ values, which almost reached their initial values tested with PID. Studies have shown that sodium diffusion out of cells leads to electrical performance renewal. When using the applied bias technique, sodium will drift back to the cover glass (Yamaguchi et al., Citation2015). CIGS/CdS interface (and damaging it) was prevented by the polarity reversal technique according to Alonso-Garcia, Hacke, Glynn, Muzzillo, and Mansfield (Citation2019). In Lee et al. (Citation2021), the recovery process was demonstrated for samples containing compressed discs. For cells with Zn(O,S) insulating layers, there was no improvement due to irregular sodium diffusion and distribution and different capacitance responses between the layers. Through Polarity switching of the PV module, the electrical performance was relatively renewed (Boulhidja et al., Citation2020; Boulhidja, Mellit, & Voswinckel, Citation2017; Voswinckel et al., Citation2020). According to Luo et al. (Citation2017), reversing bias at night can be achieved with appropriate inverter systems. The night hours can be used to replenish the energy lost during the day.

  4. Storage in a dark environment: According to Salomon et al. (Citation2019) study, after six months of being stored in a dark environment for 14 days, cell-level samples recovered their efficiency to 14%, whereas it had been reduced from 15 to 0% by the PID. Based on the results of a nine-month storage at room temperature of small units in a dark environment, Yamaguchi et al. (Citation2015) confirmed this finding. Room temperature led to a gradual improvement in efficiency. This was expected because sodium was returning to its source by relying on thermal energy. Voswinckel et al. (Citation2020) found that modules of PV power plants in actual operation were not capable of recovering PID after storing in a dark warehouse.

  5. Lightly soak: As much as 7% of the energy was recovered by light soaking for the tested micro-units. There was a loss of 17% in these units at first (Voswinckel et al., Citation2020). PID-damaged units also have been subjected to improvements in electrical properties. With the light soaking method, Sakurai et al. (Citation2018) showed rapid recovery, as only a few hours are required to restore initial energy. According to Sakurai et al. (Citation2019) the mechanism behind light-soaked recovery is still unclear.

shows an example of PID recovery (Boulhidja et al., Citation2020) for the PV module back, front, and frame. The notation “1” and “2” are for test after PID and recovery, respectively. The performance parameters of the PV module (Pmax, FF, Isc, and Voc) measured and calculated a chamber with specific conditions. It was found that general observation is improving performance parameters after PID recovery. Also, the frame shows the highest performance compared with PV module back and front.

Figure 9. Performance parameters of PV module after PID recovery.

Figure 9. Performance parameters of PV module after PID recovery.

7. Conclusions

Based on a chronological approach, this paper provided an overview of the most recent important studies on PID photovoltaic degradation mechanisms. In addition to addressing and monitoring potential degradation caused by PV modules, there is also a need for research on the topic. A good method for mitigating and recovering from PID must be implemented at the cell and module level to ensure the longevity and efficiency of PV modules. It is possible to reduce the impact of PID on PV modules’ performance and reliability by understanding the underlying causes, testing and mitigation methods, and appropriate recovery solutions.

This review reveals the main focuses and most important contributions of the various studies in this area. PID modeling of photovoltaic cells is also explained in terms of the important mathematical estimates. Based on simulation studies and practical experiments to verify these results, the study clarified the main characteristics and results. In the study, the mechanisms used currently were explained in detail, which still need to be further investigated and developed for photovoltaic cells to achieve their ideal and PID-free state.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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