Finding the nexus between associative mechanisms and cocoa Farmer resilience against natural hazards in Ghana

ABSTRACT

Existing literature has acknowledged the vulnerability of cocoa farming to various natural hazards but there is a notable dearth of research comprehensively exploring the specific associative mechanisms that cocoa farmers employ to tackle these challenges. Employing a quantitative research approach, the investigation draws on data collected from a sample of 384 cocoa farmers who were selected using the multi-stage sampling technique. The findings reveal that religious groups are the most available associative mechanisms (86.98%) while cooperative societies emerge as a widely used associative mechanism among cocoa farmers (Mean = 4.16). The prevalence of diseases and pests (91.9%), and drought (70.3%) pose substantial threats to cocoa cultivation. In enhancing the resilience of cocoa farmers against natural hazards, associative mechanisms serve as a linchpin by providing access to timely information (Mean = 4.11). Farmers’ biggest challenge in their associative mechanisms is ‘limited support and recognition from the government or policy framework’ (Mean rank = 7.24). The insights gleaned from the research underscore the crucial role of associative mechanisms, particularly cooperative societies, in bolstering the resilience of cocoa farmers. The ability of these mechanisms to serve as conduits for information dissemination, resource pooling, and collaborative problem-solving is highlighted as instrumental in mitigating the adverse impacts of natural hazards. In this light, the study advocates for the continued support and fortification of associative mechanisms as a strategic approach to enhancing cocoa farmer resilience in the face of prevalent and emerging natural challenges.

KEYWORDS:

• associative mechanisms
• cocoa farmers
• natural hazards
• resilience

1. Introduction

Social cohesiveness has a lengthy historical background, originating from early sociological research in the 19th century (Larsen, 2015). From a development standpoint, it has gained prominence due to its essential contribution to economic progress and empowerment (Larsen, 2015; Sommer, 2019). The concept heavily relies on social capital, which refers to the interconnectedness and interactions among individuals (F. Cox & Sisk, 2017). It encompasses various features at the individual, community, and societal levels, which include personal attitudes and actions, attributes of communities and other collectives, and interactions between individuals and groups, both among themselves and with governmental establishments (Chan et al., 2006; F. Cox & Sisk, 2017).

The quality of relationships within a group has a positive impact on the effectiveness of collective action (Kruijssen et al., 2009). This emphasises the active participation of group members in the collaborative process of problem identification, solution exploration, implementation, and outcome evaluation (Kruijssen et al., 2009; Mayunga, 2007). This has the potential to foster the generation of creative ideas and practices that would be difficult to develop on an individual basis (Kruijssen et al., 2009) but allow group members to jointly fulfil the demands for quality accomplishments. A framework that controls and coordinates the actions of the collective entity facilitates collective action (Kagazani et al., 2009). McCarthy (2008) claims that this particular arrangement has the ability to function independently and that its members are internally motivated. This is termed an associative mechanism. Farmers use a strategic approach to actively engage in and take advantage of the potential for group action, increasing their productivity capabilities (Devaux et al., 2009).

Associative mechanisms exhibit various manifestations and can be categorised into formal and informal types based on factors such as resources, connections, responsibilities, and regulations. An informal associative mechanism typically refers to the voluntary formation of an organisation (McCarthy, 2008). According to Poole and De Frece (2010), these informal structures operate autonomously, without any guidance or participation from external entities such as governments or non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The external organisations only provide support for the operations of the informal structures in the associative mechanisms. These could include financial assistance, the provision of office space, equipment, and communication systems (Jere, 2005). Forms of informal associative mechanisms include ad hoc groupings, community-based groups, producer clubs, farmer cooperatives, family and relatives, and rural community enterprises, etc (McCarthy, 2008; Poole & De Frece, 2010). Associative processes, in a formal context, are frequently established and influenced by external actors such as governmental bodies or non-governmental organisations (Devaux et al., 2009; McCarthy, 2008). Formal associative mechanisms establish a knowledge ‘chain’ that facilitates capacity-building, connecting national policies with informal associations (Kumwenda et al., 2013).

The success of associative mechanisms hinges upon the active participation of farmers, as they provide a crucial platform for fostering communication between local people and outsider scientists. Enhanced communication, knowledge sharing, and improved relationships are among the benefits associated with associative processes (Darnhofer, 2010; Ţînţarcu, 2012). Associative mechanisms also serve the purpose of facilitating access to both local and scientific knowledge for all those involved, providing them with the opportunity to mutually learn from each other (Poole & De Frece, 2010). In addition, it is worth noting that farmers who participate in collective activity, particularly through associative mechanisms, actively contribute to the establishment of self-organisational structures and the formation of connections across different scales (Sichali et al., 2013). The concept greatly enhances people’s understanding of the capacity for social progress. According to Newman et al. (2015), it can serve as a foundation for effectively designing public policies at any level. Similarly, it can provide evidence of which policies should be avoided due to the potential for creating an undesirable outcome. Hence, associative mechanisms can also highlight the potential hazards of specific policies that lead to their erosion and subsequently result in the decline of citizens’ living situations (Monastério, 2003).

According to UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2002), associative mechanisms can provide valuable insights into several aspects, such as trading strategies, innovative farming techniques, and the significance of quality in assessing agricultural produce. Participants in associative mechanisms have the ability to collectively invest in innovative technologies that would have been financially unattainable for individual farmers. Associative mechanisms function as a central hub for disseminating information regarding marketplaces, trading, pricing, etc (Ţînţarcu, 2012). When governments or international agencies organise training initiatives, they prioritise and collaborate with farmers’ collective mechanisms rather than individual farmers (Poole & De Frece, 2010). Participating in collaborative endeavours provides farmers with opportunities to access and obtain additional resources, such as training programmes aimed at enhancing their quality and skill sets against climate hazards (Devaux et al., 2010).

Cocoa farming, a vital source of livelihood for millions of farmers in regions like West Africa, faces an increasing threat from natural hazards (Osbahr et al., 2010). A natural hazard is a naturally occurring event or phenomenon with the potential to cause harm, destruction, or negative impacts on the environment, human life, property, and other aspects of society. Examples of natural hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, wildfires, tsunamis, and landslides. These events are part of the earth’s natural processes and can take various forms, ranging from geological, meteorological, hydrological, and climatological occurrences (Banica et al., 2020; Kourtit et al., 2023). These hazards disrupt cocoa production and undermine the socio-economic stability of farming communities, necessitating strategies for resilience building. Natural hazards can lead to disasters when they intersect with vulnerable populations or areas, resulting in significant losses and challenges for communities (Chanrith, 2008).

One potential approach to addressing this issue is to harness the associative mechanisms of cocoa farmers, such as cooperatives, political parties, social help groups, labour groups, religious groups, etc., as a means to collectively mitigate the impact of natural hazards and enhance the overall resilience of cocoa farming communities (Chanrith, 2008). Farmers are expected to build resilience against these natural hazards. Resilience is the ability of a system to effectively absorb disturbances and undergo reorganisation while still maintaining its fundamental function, structure, feedback mechanisms, and overall identity (Walker et al., 2004). Folke et al. (2010) proposed that there are four essential factors that interact and contribute to the development of resilience in the face of hazards: 1) acquiring the ability to adapt to and accept change and uncertainty; 2) fostering diversity in its multiple manifestations; 3) integrating diverse forms of knowledge and learning; and 4) facilitating the creation of opportunities for self-organisation and cross-scale connections. According to Berkes (2007), the resilience of a system is contingent upon its ability to engage in self-organisation. Because of this, building strong structures and developing a strong self-organising ability within an associative mechanism are essential for making sure it works well (Osbahr et al., 2010). This contributes to the enhancement of resilience in agricultural systems.

Although numerous studies have been conducted on associative mechanisms and farmer resilience (Curtis, 2013; Kumwenda et al., 2013; Osbahr et al., 2010; Siedenburg et al., 2009), the literature lacks comprehensive and empirical documentation about the extent to which associative mechanisms are involved in the management of crises and hazards in agriculture. Curtis (2013) mentioned that in cases where associative mechanisms were established, smallholder farmers experienced more control over resources, leading to enhanced resilience. Kumwenda et al. (2013) asserted that individuals who are part of associative mechanisms acquire knowledge on strategies to enhance their resilience in the face of climate change. A study by Siedenburg et al. (2009) and an article by Osbahr et al. (2010) also found that the benefits farmers get from joining associative mechanisms and the way these mechanisms are run encourages the creation and upkeep of legitimate institutions that support and encourage collective action all work together to make things more resilient. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that it concentrates on a specific agricultural sector—cocoa farming, which is crucial for the economies of many developing regions. It also addresses the pressing issue of resilience in the face of natural hazards. As climate change and extreme weather events become more frequent and severe, the need for resilience strategies within agriculture is increasingly important. The study delves into how collective action among farmers can be leveraged to combat shared challenges (natural hazards). While collective action has been studied in various contexts, applying it to cocoa farming and natural hazard mitigation is a fresh perspective.

An understanding of how these associative mechanisms are currently being utilised and identifying the gaps, challenges, and opportunities in their application to fight natural hazards remains a critical research and implementation problem. This study highlights the need to explore the effectiveness of associative mechanisms in building resilience within cocoa farming communities, focusing on the identification of best practices and the development of actionable strategies to combat natural hazards and secure the livelihoods of cocoa farmers. The main objective of the study is the assessment of associative mechanisms and cocoa farmer resilience against natural hazards in Offinso South Municipality, Ashanti Region, Ghana. The specific objectives are to: 1) identify the natural hazards experienced by cocoa farmers; 2) identify the types of associative mechanisms available and used by cocoa farmers to fight natural hazards; 3) assess farmers’ perceptions of the dynamics existent in associative mechanisms; 4) examine farmers’ perceptions of the effect of associative mechanisms on their resilience to natural hazards; and 5) identify and rank the challenges militating against the sustainability of associative mechanisms among cocoa farmers.

The novelty of this study lies in its specific focus on the assessment of associative mechanisms and their role in enhancing cocoa farmer resilience against natural hazards in the Offinso South Municipality, Ashanti Region, Ghana. While various studies explore resilience in agricultural contexts, this research uniquely delves into the specific associative mechanisms that cocoa farmers employ collectively to combat the challenges posed by natural hazards. Identifying the types of associative mechanisms employed by cocoa farmers adds granularity to the understanding of their resilience strategies. The assessment of farmers’ perceptions of the dynamics within these associative mechanisms provides qualitative insights into the social aspects of resilience. Furthermore, gauging farmers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of these mechanisms in enhancing resilience offers a nuanced understanding of their impact on cocoa farming communities. The study’s focus on identifying and ranking challenges affecting the sustainability of associative mechanisms among cocoa farmers is particularly innovative. This aspect goes beyond assessing the positive aspects and delves into the barriers and limitations that may hinder the continued effectiveness of these associative mechanisms. The study aims to provide new information about how resilient cocoa farms are to natural disasters by focusing on these specific goals. This information will be useful for both academic research and real-world interventions in agricultural communities.

2. Theoretical perspectives

The study leveraged insights from diverse social network theories to provide a comprehensive understanding of the underlying issues. According to the homophily theory, which Lazarsfeld and Merton (1954) developed, networks of cocoa farmers are more likely to form when they share agricultural practices, traditional knowledge, and cultural values. These networks facilitate collective development and exchange of resilience-building strategies, uniting farmers against natural hazards. Triad theory, as put forth by Hummon and Doreian (2003), sheds light on the dynamics of three-person social relationships. Emphasising balanced collaboration, power dynamics, trust, and cooperation, triadic relationships become instrumental in effective knowledge sharing, resource allocation, and decision-making for resilience efforts in cocoa farming. Burt (1992) proposed the structural hole theory, which emphasizes the strategic bridging of gaps within networks to access various resources and knowledge. Farmers serving as intermediaries, strategically positioned to bridge structural holes, play pivotal roles in advocating and implementing resilience strategies within the cocoa farming community. Mark Granovetter’s strong/weak tie theory (1973) introduces a nuanced understanding of social ties in cocoa farming networks. Strong ties, exemplified by close-knit local relationships, provide emotional support and mutual aid, fostering a sense of belonging and collective strength. Weak ties, extending beyond local communities, offer diverse information and alternative strategies, enhancing resilience by providing multifaceted support systems and adaptability to changing conditions. Heider’s Balancing Theory (Heider, 1958) contributes to the understanding of balanced relationships in cocoa farming networks, crucial for effective knowledge sharing, resource allocation, and collaborative decision-making. The study also makes use of Homans (1950) Clique Theory, which emphasises clique formation and behaviour within larger groups. These exclusive subsets of individuals with shared interests provide essential emotional support and a sense of unity, contributing to community resilience in the face of natural hazards. Together, these theoretical frameworks offer a robust foundation for understanding and enhancing resilience in cocoa farming systems.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Research design

This research utilised an exploratory research design to examine the relationship between associative mechanisms and resilience against natural hazards. This study approach allowed the researchers to acquire views, knowledge, and comprehend the significance of the interactions among the variables under investigation (Ntow et al., 2023).

3.2. Study area

The area of the study was Offinso South Municipality. The Offinso South Municipality is a constituent of the Ashanti region, established in the latter half of 2007, comprising one of the 27 administrative districts. The location of this place is in the northwestern section of the Ashanti region. It shares a border with Atwima Nwabiagya and Offinso North districts to the west and north, respectively. The Municipal has a shared boundary with the Ahafo Ano South district to the west, and its eastern and southern borders are shared with the Afigya Kwabre district. The study chose the Ashanti region, specifically the Offinso South Municipality, as its area of focus for several reasons. The Municipality is a distinct administrative district within the Ashanti region, making it a well-defined and manageable geographic unit for the study. The location of Offinso South in the northwestern section of the Ashanti region provides a unique context within the larger regional setting. The significant population growth in the area can be attributed to the influx of people due to favourable weather conditions and fertile soil that support a wide range of agricultural activities. The municipality’s built environment exhibits a combination of planned and unplanned development. Offinso New Town demonstrates a well-organised layout, although other communities suffer from problems such as unregulated construction techniques, insufficient drainage, and environmental difficulties. The provision of water and sanitation is a major issue, as the majority of villages depend on boreholes, hand-dug wells, ponds, and streams as their primary sources of drinking water. The Offinso South Municipality exhibits an undulating landscape that is traversed by rivers including Offin, Anyinasusu, Ode, and Pro. The region has a semi-equatorial and tropical climate, characterised by a bi-modal pattern of moderate to heavy rainfall each year. The predominant vegetation consists of moist, semi-deciduous woodland, with occasional dense vegetation cover. Prominent aesthetic characteristics encompass the Abofour Virgin Forest, Asuboi Waterfalls, Kentaa Rock, Tutuase Shrine, and Twumasen Caves. Nevertheless, human activities have had a substantial impact on the natural environment, resulting in the deterioration of land, the destruction of forests, and the modification of ecological patterns. Agricultural methods, the practice of burning vegetation, and the use of chainsaws all contribute to the reduction of valuable trees and the deterioration of the natural environment. Implementing measures to manage and minimise these activities is crucial for the preservation of the natural resources in the Offinso South Municipality. By choosing a specific municipality within the Ashanti region, the study can capture localised variations, experiences, and challenges faced by cocoa farmers in this unit, providing valuable insights that may contribute to a more nuanced understanding of resilience-building strategies in cocoa farming communities within the broader Ashanti region.

3.3. Population and sample size

The study population was all cocoa farmers in the Offinso South Municipality. This study focused on cocoa farmers in the municipality. Since the exact population size of the study was not known, the formular proposed by Cochran was used in order to ascertain the appropriate sample size. Unlike the Yamane formular which utilises a finite population, we used the Cochran formula because it is typically deals with infinite populations or very large populations where the sample size (n) is a small fraction of the population (Cochran, 1963). The formula is given by:

Cochran’s formula is; $n_o=\frac{Z^2\mathit{pq}}{e^2}$

Where; $n_o$ = the sample size

Z = is the selected critical value of desired confidence level.

p = the estimated proportion of an attribute that represents the population

q = 1 – p

e = the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error)

Therefore, choosing to enhance minimum variability, the study used a 95% confidence level. We chose a 95% confidence level for our statistical analysis because it is a standard and widely accepted level of confidence in scientific research, often denoted as α (alpha) level of 0.05. This decision reflects the trade-off between the desire for a high level of confidence in the results and the practical considerations of cost, time, and resources associated with data collection and analysis. A 95 % confidence level gives Z values of 1.96, per the normal tables. The sample size is therefore ${\mathrm{n}}_{\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}=}\frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^2\left(0.5\right)\left(0.5\right)}{{\left(0.05\right)}^2}=\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}384.16$

3.4. Sampling procedure

Multistage sampling technique was employed for the study. In the first stage, simple random sampling technique was adopted to select the study area, Offinso South Municipality. In the second stage, 10 cocoa farming communities (Abofour, Abofour Camp, Koforidua, Sakam, Samproso, Abrokyire, Adukuro, Kayera, Namong and Awisem) out of the 30 communities were selected using the simple random sampling technique. This served several purposes. Firstly, it helped ensure the representativeness of the sample. Simple random sampling provides an unbiased and equal chance for each community to be selected, reducing the risk of selection bias and allowing the findings to be more generalizable to the larger population of cocoa farming communities in the region. Secondly, this approach aided in resource efficiency. Conducting a study in all the 30 communities was logistically challenging and resource-intensive. By selecting a subset using random sampling, researchers were able to gather meaningful data while managing time, financial, and human resources more effectively. Additionally, the use of simple random sampling enhanced the statistical validity of the study. It provided a basis for making statistical inferences about the entire population of cocoa farming communities, assuming that the selected communities were representative. This was crucial for achieving representativeness, drawing reliable conclusions and making broader implications from the study’s findings. In the third stage, simple sampling technique was again used to select the individual cocoa farmers in the communities. For each of the selected communities, a list of cocoa farmers was generated. Researchers assigned a unique number to each farmer in the community and used a random table of numbers to generate random numbers within the range of the community size. This was done so that each selection was independent of the others, meaning that the inclusion or exclusion of one element in the sample did not influence the selection of any other element (Ahmed et al., 2016).

3.5. Data sources

This study used only primary data sources. The primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire, which was conducted in a face-to-face interview. Choosing a structured questionnaire with only close-ended questions provided us the following advantages; we received responses in a structured and standardised format, making it easier to quantify and analyse the data. This facilitated the statistical analysis. The structured questionnaires ensured that each respondent encountered the same set of questions in the same format. This helped maintain consistency across the sample, reducing variability in responses.

3.6. Data collection procedure

An initial pilot interview was conducted in Nkawie district, also a cocoa farming community, with a sample size of 20 respondents. The pilot interview allowed researchers to assess the relevance, validity, and reliability of the questionnaire used in the study. This step was crucial in ensuring that the survey instrument effectively captured the necessary information and measured what it intended to measure. Any ambiguities, biases, or inadequacies in the questionnaire were identified and addressed based on feedback from the pilot participants. The pilot interview provided an opportunity to evaluate the cultural and contextual relevance of the questionnaire. It ensured that the questions were appropriate and understandable within the specific context of cocoa farming communities, taking into account local nuances and perspectives. The pilot phase helped identify any operational issues in the data collection process. This included challenges in administering the questionnaire, issues with logistics, or any unforeseen practical difficulties. Addressing these concerns before the full-scale study improved the efficiency of the research process. Insights gained from the pilot interview contributed to refining the research design. The three fieldworkers underwent a comprehensive five-day training and pre-test programme, which equipped them with the essential skills, information, and instructions required to carry out the survey effectively. Additionally, the training enabled them to enhance the questionnaire by incorporating comments obtained from the pre-test. A field officer was employed to provide guidance to the field workers in locating the cocoa growers. The Census and Survey Processing System (CSPro) was utilised to create a questionnaire for field implementation through Computer Assisted Personal Interview (Ntow et al., 2023). The questionnaires was sent personally to the cocoa farmers in the 10 selected communities to ensure a greater response rate. The field workers assisted the respondents in answering the questionnaires by translating to their local dialect since the questionnaire was designed in English language. The questionnaire was designed in a structured format, incorporating only close-ended questions.

3.7. Ethical considerations

Each participant supplied informed consent, which was obtained in a voluntary and explicit manner, without any type of coercion, inducement, or misinformation. We presented a concise and thorough account of the research objective to them, clarifying the type of data being gathered and highlighting its anonymity and confidentiality. They were given a concise elucidation of our interview approach, the intended use, distribution of the study findings, benefits and risks involved with participation in the study. This was accomplished prior to the initiation of the actual data collection process. As a result, they gave their verbal consent after receiving complete information.

3.8. Empirical framework and data analysis

The data from the questionnaire was edited, coded and entered into the computer programme for the analysis, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27.0 software. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation were used. The inclusion of standard deviation was crucial because it measured the dispersion or variability of a set of data points from the mean (average) value. If the standard deviation is small, it indicates that the data points are close to the mean. In this case, the values in the dataset are relatively consistent or similar to each other. A large standard deviation suggests that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values. This means that there is more variability or dispersion in the dataset, and the values may be more diverse.

Farmers were asked to indicate the natural hazards they had ever experienced in a Yes or No multiple choice format. The data was analysed using frequency and percentage. In addition to that, farmers were asked to indicate their perception of frequency of occurrence of the natural hazard and its severity on a five-point likert scale, thus, Never = 1–1.49, Rarely = 1.50–2.49, Sometimes = 2.50–3.49, Often = 3.50–4.49, Always = 4.50–5.00 (frequency of occurrence) and Strongly Disagree = 1–1.49, Disagree = 1.50–2.49, Neutral = 2.50–3.49, Agree = 3.50–4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50–5.00 (perceived severity).

In order to identify the types of associative mechanisms available to cocoa farmers, farmers indicated the associative mechanisms available in their community using a binary response; Yes or No. In terms of frequency of use, a five-point likert scale ranging from Never = 1–1.49, Rarely = 1.50–2.49, Sometimes = 2.50–3.49, Often = 3.50–4.49, Always = 4.50–5.00 was used. A mean score was then generated for all the associative mechanisms. The dynamics of associations within the various mechanisms was categorised into three thematic areas; definition of problem, solution implementation and evaluation of outcomes. A five-point likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree = 1–1.49, Disagree = 1.50–2.49, Neutral = 2.50–3.49, Agree = 3.50–4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50–5.00 was used to analyse it. A mean score was then generated for each of the dynamics. In order to examine farmers’ perception on the effect of associative mechanisms on their resilience to natural hazards, a five point likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree = 1–1.49, Disagree = 1.50–2.49, Neutral = 2.50–3.49, Agree = 3.50–4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50–5.00 was used. South et al. (2022) gave credence to the use of a five-point likert scale. A five-point scale is straightforward and easy for respondents to understand. It strikes a balance between providing enough response options for nuanced feedback and avoiding unnecessary complexity. Data analysis becomes more straightforward with a five-point scale. It is easier to calculate means, averages, and conduct statistical analyses compared to scales with more response options. A scale with an odd number of response options (like 5) reduces the likelihood of respondents consistently choosing the midpoint. This helps mitigate central tendency bias, where respondents tend to avoid extreme responses. While still providing a moderate level of granularity, a five-point scale encourages respondents to make more distinct choices compared to scales with fewer response options. The Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, an inferential statistic, was used to identify and rank the challenges faced by the cocoa farmers.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents

Table 1 shows that there are 71.6% males and 28.4% females. This shows that there is a level of male dominance in cocoa production in the study area. However, the percentage of female farmers is still encouraging and it can be said that both men and women are involved in cocoa production. Given the observed male dominance in cocoa production, the implementation of programmes that provide women with access to agricultural education and training will greatly enhance their knowledge and skills in cocoa farming practices. Women farmer groups could be encouraged and supported in the formation of women-focused farmers’ groups or cooperatives. These organizations can provide a platform for knowledge-sharing, collective decision-making, and resource pooling. When implemented, it can break down barriers and create an environment that fosters greater female participation in cocoa farming. Recognizing and empowering women in cocoa production not only enhances gender equality but also contributes to the overall resilience and sustainability of cocoa farming communities.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of farmers

Continuous variable	Min	Max	Mean	Std. Dev
Age	21	72	44.93	11.947
Household size	2	15	7.98	3.164
Years of farming experience	1	49	19.32	10.523
Number of farms	1	5	2.43	1.159
Farm size (Acres)	1	19	8.09	4.501
Monthly household income	200	900	511.45	179.931
Discrete variables	Frequency		Percent
Sex of respondent
Male	275		71.6
Female	109		28.4
Gender of household head
Male	299		77.9
Female	85		22.1
Religion of respondent
Christianity	271		70.6
Muslim	97		25.3
Traditionalist	6		1.6
Others	10		2.6
Marital status
Married	299		77.9
Divorced	28		7.3
Single	23		6.0
Widowed	34		8.9
Educational level
Tertiary	6		1.6
Secondary	42		11.0
Junior high	281		73.1
Primary	51		13.2
None	4		1.0
Land ownership
Own	251		65.4
Hire	94		24.5
Joint venture family	29		7.6
Others	10		2.6
Access to formal credit
Yes	105		27.3
No	279		72.7
Access to skilled labour
Yes	161		41.9
No	223		58.1

Source: Field Data, 2023.

Farmers’ mean age was 44.93 years. This means that the youth are not motivated the cocoa production. This could be attributed to lack of interest in agriculture, lack of initial capital to invest in agriculture as a business, and illegal mining activities which have gained grounds among the youth, and has taken them away from the study area. The productive age in Ghana ranges from 15 to 59 years (Aikins & Apt, 2016). The lack of interest in agriculture among youth can be attributed to several factors, including the fact that many young people perceive agriculture as a traditional and low-status occupation associated with hard labour, low income, and limited opportunities for innovation and career advancement. Youth may face challenges accessing key resources necessary for successful agricultural entrepreneurship, such as land, capital, technology, and market information. Considering the identified lack of motivation among the youth for cocoa production, agricultural policies need to be strategically tailored to make cocoa farming more attractive and viable for the younger generation. First and foremost, policymakers should focus on providing targeted financial incentives, such as subsidies and grants, to ease the financial burden of establishing cocoa farms. Additionally, investing in modern, technology-driven agricultural practices and mechanization can appeal to the tech-savvy youth, making cocoa farming more efficient and less labor-intensive. Implementing mentorship programs, vocational training, and educational initiatives that highlight the potential for innovation and entrepreneurship in cocoa farming can instill a sense of purpose and long-term sustainability among young farmers. Ultimately, fostering a supportive ecosystem that recognizes and rewards the contributions of young cocoa farmers is crucial for creating a vibrant and motivated youth community in cocoa agriculture.

The results reveal that majority (77.9%) of the cocoa farmers were married. This means that most cocoa farmers are married, and this finding is in line with the observation made by Bammeke in (Bammeke, 2003), which posits that individuals involved in agricultural activities are more likely to be married. Married farmers may have additional family-related financial responsibilities, which could potentially limit the resources they can allocate to their cocoa farming activities. Consequently, these family obligations might result in smaller-scale cocoa farming operations. Family-related financial responsibilities can significantly impact the household income of married cocoa farmers, as they often need to allocate a portion of their earnings to meet various family needs, including education, healthcare, and daily living expenses (Badstue et al., 2020). This allocation may reduce the funds available for reinvestment in the cocoa farm or hinder the ability to adopt modern and more productive farming practices. To mitigate these effects, financial literacy and management training could be given to married cocoa farmers, helping them develop effective budgeting strategies and allocate resources more efficiently. Additionally, introducing social support programmes, such as community-based childcare services, can ease the burden on families and enable farmers to focus more on their agricultural activities. Implementing policies that improve access to affordable healthcare and education can also alleviate some financial pressures on cocoa-farming households, ensuring that more income can be directed towards farm-related investments and improvements (O’Brien et al., 2016).

From the findings, it is revealed that 85 (22.1%) were female household heads, while 299 (77.9%) were male household heads. Majority (70.6%) of the respondents were Christians. The average household size from the findings is eight (8). Awoyemi and Aderinoye-Abdulwahab (2019) analysed the impact of household size on farmers and argued that larger rural farm families have an abundant labour force available for activities such as planting and other farming methods, which may promote the growth of farms. In terms of education, the majority (73.1%) of the respondents had formal education up to Junior High School level. The majority of the farmers have some level of formal education. This can help improve their access to and use of agricultural knowledge, which is necessary in their production (Omulo & Kumeh, 2020).

The average household income of the respondents was GHȼ500. Averagely the farming experience of the respondent is 19 years with minimum of 1 year and maximum of 49 years. Experienced farmers are expected to have information and knowledge about climate change and its impact on agriculture (Maddison, 2006). The results show that a farmer cultivates 2 acres averagely. From the findings, 65.4% of the farmers own their land, 24.5% hire, 7.6% engage in joint family venture while 2.6% are into other land ownership arrangement. The mean number of farms is 2.51 with minimum of 1 and maximum of 8.

Farmers who have access to credit are 27.3% while those without access to credit are 72.7%. Credit/loan helps farmers to adopt new technologies, as access to cash allows farmers to purchase farm inputs, Fosu-Mensah et al. (2012). This challenge limits their ability to invest in their farms, purchase modern equipment, and improve their agricultural practices. However, increased access to credit can facilitate the adoption of various agricultural technologies and innovations among cocoa farmers, enhancing their resilience. Specifically, farmers can use credit to purchase high-quality seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. This ensures healthier cocoa plants, higher yields, and improved resistance to diseases and pests, contributing to the long-term resilience of cocoa farms. Credit can be invested in digital farming technologies by implementing soil sensors to measure key soil properties such as moisture content, pH levels, and nutrient levels to help farmers make informed decisions about irrigation schedules, fertilizer application, and soil management practices. It can also be used in GPS-guided machinery for precise planting, fertilizing, and spraying to ensure that resources are applied only where and when needed, optimizing inputs and reducing waste, utilising satellite imagery to monitor cocoa farms over large geographic areas to help identify areas of stress, detect disease outbreaks, and assess crop health on a regional scale, incorporating features for digital record-keeping, allowing farmers to track inputs, expenses, and yields over time and enabling communication and knowledge-sharing among farmers through mobile platforms, fostering collaboration and peer learning within cocoa-growing communities (Annor-Frempong & Akaba, 2020; Nhemachena & Hassan, 2007).

The data shows that a significant majority (58.1%) of farmers in the study area do not have access to skilled labour. This hinders their ability to carry out various agricultural activities efficiently and effectively. Of the 41.9% who have access to labour, their source is hired labour and family labour. Skilled labour is essential for tasks such as pruning, grafting, disease control, and harvesting, all of which directly impact cocoa yield and quality. Insufficient skilled labour can lead to suboptimal farming practices, increased post-harvest losses, and lower overall farm efficiency. Concerted efforts are needed to invest in knowledge-sharing platforms that equip farmers with the necessary skills. Additionally, the promotion of mechanization and the adoption of technology-driven solutions can mitigate the dependency on manual labour, contributing to increased productivity and sustainability in cocoa farming.

4.2. Natural hazards faced by cocoa farmers

From Table 2, disease and pest issues appear to be prevalent among cocoa farmers in the study area, with 91.9% of respondents (353 farmers) reporting this challenge. This challenge can have detrimental effects on cocoa production, leading to yield losses, reduced quality, and increased production costs (Dormon et al., 2004). Disease and pest management are essential components of sustainable cocoa farming practices, requiring effective and timely interventions to mitigate their adverse effects. Addressing disease and pest issues is crucial for enhancing the resilience of cocoa farmers against natural hazards, as a healthy and robust cocoa plantation is better equipped to withstand environmental stressors (Aikpokpodion et al., 2021; Boateng et al., 2023). A substantial portion of farmers, approximately 70.3%, have experienced drought, highlighting it as a significant concern. Drought is a critical natural hazard that can have severe consequences on cocoa yields, posing a significant threat to the livelihoods of farmers and the overall sustainability of cocoa production. The susceptibility of cocoa trees to water stress during periods of drought can lead to reduced flower development, poor pod formation, and ultimately decreased yields. In addition to the direct effects on cocoa productivity, drought can contribute to soil degradation, exacerbating the challenges faced by farmers. Resilience-building efforts in response to drought should encompass both short-term adaptations, such as efficient water management practices, and long-term strategies, including the promotion of drought-resistant cocoa varieties (Bomdzele & Molua, 2023).

Table 2. Natural hazards faced by cocoa farmers

Natural hazards	Yes: Freq. (Percent)	No: Freq. (Percent)	Frequency of occurrence	Severity
Disease and pest	353 (91.9)	31 (8.1)	3.89 (1.52)	4.27 (0.16)
Drought	270 (70.3)	114 (29.7)	3.55 (1.23)	3.91 (0.93)
Windstorm	175 (45.6)	209 (54.5)	3.24 (0.19)	2.19 (0.02)
Flood	58 (15.1)	326 (84.9)	2.01 (0.88)	1.74 (0.34)
Wildfires	28 (7.3)	356 (92.7)	1.18 (1.00)	1.01 (0.00)

Source: Field Data, 2023.

Frequency of Occurrence: Never = 1 – 1.49, Rarely = 1.50 – 2.49, Sometimes = 2.50 – 3.49, Often = 3.50 – 4.49, Always = 4.50 – 5.00

Severity: Strongly Disagree = 1 – 1.49, Disagree = 1.50 – 2.49, Neutral = 2.50 – 3.49, Agree = 3.50 – 4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50 – 5.00

The reported occurrence of windstorms by 45.6% of respondents among cocoa farmers is a noteworthy finding that underscores the vulnerability of cocoa crops to this specific hazard. Windstorms can have detrimental effects on cocoa cultivation, primarily through the physical damage they cause to the trees. The impact includes broken branches, uprooted trees, and overall structural damage, compromising the health and integrity of the cocoa plants. The significance of this lies in the potential consequences for the productivity of cocoa farms. Damaged or weakened trees are likely to produce fewer and lower-quality cocoa pods, directly affecting the yield and economic outcomes for farmers. Moreover, the long-term health of cocoa plants may be compromised, leading to extended periods of recovery and reduced resilience against future stressors (Agyeman et al., 2022; Aikpokpodion et al., 2021). There were low reported occurrences of floods (15.1%) and wildfires (7.3%) among cocoa farmers. Floods can result in various detrimental effects, including soil erosion and waterlogging, which can compromise the structural integrity of cocoa trees and negatively impact soil health. The damage caused by floods may extend to cocoa trees, affecting their overall productivity and health (Saravia-Castillo et al., 2022). On the other hand, wildfires present a distinct threat with severe consequences not only for the environment but also for cocoa cultivation. Wildfires can lead to the destruction of vegetation, including cocoa trees, and the loss of essential ecosystem services (Boateng et al., 2023). Associative mechanisms significantly contribute to cocoa farmers’ awareness and understanding of climate change. Through farmer cooperatives and community-based organizations, information on climate patterns, sustainable farming practices, and weather-resistant crop varieties is disseminated. This awareness is pivotal in shaping farmers’ resilience strategies, enabling them to proactively respond to changing climatic conditions.

The table also presents data on the frequency of occurrence and severity of various natural hazards in agriculture, measured on a scale from 1 to 5, where higher values indicate higher frequency or severity. Disease and pest has the highest frequency of occurrence (3.89) and severity (4.27), indicating that it is a significant challenge for cocoa farmers. Disease outbreaks and pest infestations can cause substantial damage to crops, leading to yield losses and economic losses for farmers (Boateng et al., 2023; Bomdzele & Molua, 2023). Drought is another significant hazard with a relatively high frequency of occurrence (3.55) and severity (3.91). Drought conditions can lead to water stress in crops, reduced soil moisture, and crop failures, impacting agricultural productivity and food security (Bomdzele & Molua, 2023). Windstorms have a moderate frequency of occurrence (3.24) but a lower severity (2.19). While windstorms can cause damage to crops, particularly during extreme weather events such as hurricanes or cyclones, their overall impact may be less severe compared to diseases, pests, or droughts (Agyeman et al., 2022). Floods have a lower frequency of occurrence (2.01) and severity (1.74) compared to other hazards. However, they can still cause significant damage to crops, infrastructure, and agricultural land, particularly in flood-prone areas. Wildfires have the lowest frequency of occurrence (1.18) and severity (1.01) among the hazards listed. While wildfires may not be as common in agricultural areas compared to other regions, they can still pose a threat to agriculture, especially in forested or grassland areas (Boateng et al., 2023).

4.3. Types of associative mechanisms used by cocoa farmers

Table 3 presents the distribution of various associative mechanisms available and used by the respondents. The frequency distribution indicates that out of the total respondents, 318 farmers have access to cooperative societies, representing 82.813% of the sample. The mean score for the utilization of cooperative societies is 4.16. This suggests that, on average, farmers are actively engaging with cooperative societies as part of their associative mechanisms. The high percentage of availability and the relatively high mean score indicate a strong presence and utilization of cooperative societies among the surveyed cocoa farmers, showcasing the importance of this associative mechanism in the context of cocoa farming. Cooperatives are recognised for their provision of technology services to farmers, encompassing activities such as the introduction of novel technologies, facilitation of information sharing among members, provision of technical consultations, access to market information and outlets, including input supply, product transportation, and marketing, as well as the provision of supportive services, such as credit service and collective resource management (Bijman & Hu, 2011; Boadu et al., 2023; Deng et al., 2010). Kehinde and Ogundeji (2022) also indicated that access to cooperative services can positively impact cocoa productivity.

Table 3. Types of associative mechanisms used by cocoa farmers

Associative Mechanisms	Available		Used
	Frequency	Percent	Mean	Std. Dev.
Cooperative societies	318	82.813	4.16	1.664
Religious group	334	86.979	3.54	1.596
Political party	260	67.708	3.25	1.447
Social help group	208	54.166	2.88	1.475
Presence of family relatives in the community	326	84.895	3.63	1.315
Rural community enterprise	210	54.687	2.86	1.194
Adult education class	116	30.208	2.45	1.457
Labour (nnoboa)	241	62.760	3.20	1.493
Traditional council	209	54.427	2.91	1.422

Source: Field Data, 2023.

NB: Available: Yes = 1, No = 0 (Multiple responses).

Use: Never = 1 – 1.49, Rarely = 1.50 – 2.49, Sometimes = 2.50 – 3.49, Often = 3.50 – 4.49, Always = 4.50 – 5.00

Religious groups are widely utilised among the respondents, with 86.979% reporting their involvement. The mean score of 3.54 suggests a relatively high level of utilisation and positive perception of religious groups as associative mechanisms within cocoa farming communities. Religious groups often serve as platforms for social cohesion, moral support, and community bonding. Scholars in the field of religion and development have hypothesised that agriculture can be considered a religious endeavour (McCleary & Barro, 2006). According to Davis (2013), such farmers believe that the Supreme Being has instructed them to cultivate the land and exercise authority over it. The high frequency of utilisation indicates that a significant majority of cocoa farmers actively participate in religious groups, showcasing the importance of such associations in their daily lives. Understanding the dynamics of religious group engagement can offer valuable insights into the cultural and social dimensions of resilience-building in the context of cocoa farming. The findings are consistent with the observations made by Dehejia et al. (2007), which highlight the role of religion in offering social security and support to its followers. Consequently, this fosters enhanced interpersonal communication and collaboration among believers. According to Lewis et al. (2013), there is a positive correlation between religion and informal helping activity. Additionally, Lewis suggests that social networks founded on religious beliefs can enhance interpersonal relationships with neighbours and broaden one’s circle of friends.

Political parties are available to 260 respondents (67.708%), with a mean utilisation score of 3.25. This may imply that a significant number of farmers are involved in political activities or affiliations within their communities. The availability and utilisation of political parties as an associative mechanism in cocoa farming communities could be influenced by factors such as local governance structures, community leadership, or broader political dynamics. Political groups play a significant role in shaping the social and political dynamics within cocoa farming communities, influencing resilience. This understanding is crucial for developing strategies that harness the positive influence of political groups while mitigating potential challenges or conflicts that may arise (Whitfield et al., 2015).

Social help groups are available to 208 respondents (54.166%), with a mean score of 2.88. This suggests that a moderate proportion of cocoa farmers engage with social help groups as an associative mechanism. Social help groups often play a crucial role in providing mutual assistance, support, and resources within a community. Social help groups serve as motivation for farmers to demonstrate dedication in order to get numerous advantages.

The presence of family relatives in the community is a prevalent associative mechanism, available to 326 respondents (84.895%), and it has a high mean utilization score of 3.63 which indicates a substantial reliance on family networks within cocoa farming communities. This finding underscores the importance of familial ties and local community support systems in the lives of cocoa farmers. The high utilisation rate suggests that family networks play a crucial role in providing social and emotional support, sharing resources, and collaborating on farming activities. It also highlights the significance of family relatives as a fundamental element of the social fabric that contributes to the resilience of cocoa farming communities. The present discovery aligns with the findings of Awoyemi and Aderinoye-Abdulwahab (2019), which suggest that large rural agricultural households possess a readily available labour force for various farming activities, hence potentially facilitating the extension of farms.

Rural community enterprises are accessed by 210 respondents (54.687%), with a mean score of 2.86. While the utilisation rate is moderate, the score suggests that rural community enterprise is employed to a reasonable extent. It plays a role in fostering collaboration and shared economic activities within cocoa farming communities. The moderate utilisation could be attributed to factors such as the nature and scope of these enterprises, availability of resources, or the perceived benefits by the farmers.

Adult education classes, a crucial avenue for knowledge enhancement, are attended by 116 respondents (30.208%) with a mean utilization score of 2.45. The relatively low utilisation rate may indicate challenges or barriers in accessing these classes among cocoa farmers. It may also showcase a low commitment to knowledge enhancement. However, continuous learning among cocoa farmers can be enhanced by improving the accessibility and effectiveness of adult education classes. This can be achieved by tailoring educational programmes to the specific needs and preferences of farmers, incorporating practical and hands-on learning experiences, and leveraging digital platforms for remote learning.

The data indicates that communal labour (nnoboa) is available to 62.760% of the respondents, with a mean utilisation score of 3.20. The relatively moderate utilisation suggests that is not widely adopted among cocoa farmers. Nnoboa represents a conventional framework founded upon principles of trust, cooperation, and reciprocity, with the primary objective of fostering development. In communal labour, community members come together to work on a shared project or address a common task. It might involve activities such as land preparation, planting, weeding, or harvesting, where community members pool their resources and efforts to accomplish tasks that benefit the entire community. It is characterised by its collaborative nature, as community members contribute their time, skills, and sometimes tools or equipment to achieve a collective goal. Communal labour has been a longstanding practice in many traditional agricultural societies, fostering a sense of community, solidarity, and mutual support among members. This finding is consistent with the research conducted by White and Dzor (2019).

Traditional councils are available to 209 respondents (54.427%), with a mean utilisation score of 2.91. This suggests that traditional councils play a role in the associative mechanisms employed by cocoa farmers, with a moderate level of utilisation. The mean score indicates a neutral perception. Traditional councils often represent an essential cultural and governance structure, influencing decision-making and conflict resolution. Traditional councils have a substantial impact on the utilisation and effectiveness of associative mechanisms in cocoa farming communities. Leveraging traditional councils for resilience-building involves aligning associative mechanisms with existing community values and traditions, thereby enhancing their acceptance and sustainability. Integrating indigenous knowledge into cooperative practices can also contribute to more contextually relevant and effective resilience strategies.

4.4. Farmers’ perception of the dynamics existent in their associative mechanisms

The analysis of associative mechanisms among cocoa farmers in Table 4 reveals a structured approach to problem-solving, encompassing three key stages: problem definition, solution implementation, and outcome evaluation. Cocoa farmers place a notably high level of importance on problem definition (Mean = 3.94), recognizing the critical need to clearly identify and understand the challenges they face before embarking on any interventions. Associative mechanisms play a crucial role in problem-solving within the context of cocoa farming challenges. By fostering collaborative platforms, farmers can share experiences, discuss effective solutions, and collectively address issues such as pest control, crop diseases, and soil management. Social learning seeks to facilitate the exchange and generation of knowledge among individuals with different backgrounds and perspectives, and has the potential to enable local participants to actively participate to the formulation of creative management strategies (Franz & Nunn, 2009).

Table 4. Farmers’ perception of the dynamics existent in their associative mechanisms

Perception of farmers	Strongly disagree (1)	Disagree (2)	Neutral (3)	Agree (4)	Strongly Agree (5)	Mean	Std. dev.
Definition of problem (Mean = 3.94)
Group members collectively define problems and challenges.	10 (10)	35(70)	57(171)	165(660)	117(585)	3.90	1.002
Different perspectives and experiences are valued in group	10(10)	41(82)	66(198)	171(684)	96(480)	3.79	1.020
Group members are encouraged to share ideas at meetings	2(2)	39(78)	50(150)	135(540)	158(790)	4.06	0.997
Everyone has an equal chance of asking and answering questions	4(4)	34(68)	45(135)	160(640)	141(705)	4.04	0.966
Solution implementation (Mean = 3.89)
Group members actively listen and seek understanding clearly when they gather together	12(12)	34(68)	62(186)	160(640)	116(580)	3.87	1.042
Decision-making is based on consensus and shared understanding	4(4)	31(62)	73(219)	164(656)	112(560)	3.91	0.945
There is full participation and collaboration among group members at meetings	8(8)	39(78)	52(156)	172(688)	113(565)	3.89	1.007
Evaluation of outcomes (Mean = 3.76)
Group members reflect on the outcomes and assess their effectiveness	18(18)	41(82)	75(225)	161(644)	89(445)	3.68	1.085
Skills acquired are utilized effectively	6(6)	48(96)	66(198)	177(708)	87(435)	3.76	0.991
Lessons learned and best practices are shared and documented for future references	4(4)	50(100)	55(165)	160(640)	115(575)	3.86	1.021
Overall Mean Index = 3.86

Source: Field Data, 2023.

NB: Strongly Disagree = 1 – 1.49, Disagree = 1.50 – 2.49, Neutral = 2.50 – 3.49, Agree = 3.50 – 4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50 – 5.00

Solution implementation is also highly prioritized (Mean = 3.89), underscoring their commitment to finding and implementing effective remedies. This agrees with Cai and Abbott (2013), who noted that knowledge and experiential sharing involves forms of interactions, joint reflections and creativity leading to repackaging of information for common understanding and it is crucial for effective communication and problem-solving. Solution implementation in cocoa farming systems involves promoting resilient crop varieties, implementing efficient water management techniques, and adopting agroforestry practices to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services. Technological innovations, such as precision agriculture, remote sensing, and mobile applications, can be integrated into cocoa farming systems. These technologies improve farm management, enhance decision-making processes, and contribute to sustainable and efficient production.

While still valued, the evaluation of outcomes receives a slightly lower score (Mean = 3.76), indicating that while farmers acknowledge the necessity of assessing their actions’ results, it may not be as central as the preceding stages. Cocoa farmers evaluate the outcomes of their resilience-building efforts through various indicators, including crop yield, financial stability, and community well-being. Regular assessments enable farmers to gauge the effectiveness of implemented strategies. Based on this evaluation, adjustments are made to enhance the resilience of their farming practices. For instance, if a particular pest control method proves inefficient, farmers may collectively explore and adopt alternative approaches. This adaptive process ensures continuous improvement and a more robust response to challenges. In the process they experiment through modification and adaptation to localize the acquired knowledge on practices and technologies (Van Mele et al., 2010).

4.5. Perceived effect of associative mechanisms on cocoa farmer resilience

In Table 5, the mean scores associated with the contribution of associative mechanisms to farmer resilience shed light on the multifaceted ways in which these mechanisms bolster the resilience of cocoa farmers. While access to credit (Mean = 3.28) is moderately important for financial stability, partnerships with other groups for products and supplies (Mean = 3.67) are seen as valuable for securing resources. Kehinde et al. (2018) and Hogeland (2002) remarked that provision of credit facilities to farmers help them increase their production. Increasing farm income (Mean = 3.99) stands out with high significance, indicating that these mechanisms play a substantial role in enhancing financial resilience. Farmers believe associative mechanisms play a significant role in increasing farm income. Hoken and Su (2018) and Kumar et al. (2018) demonstrated that the influence of cooperative membership on agricultural revenue is more significant for small-scale farms.

Table 5. Perceived effect of associative mechanisms on cocoa farmer resilience

Perceived Effects	Strongly disagree (1)	Disagree (2)	Neutral (3)	Agree (4)	Strongly agree (5)	Mean	Std. Dev.
Provide access to credit	42(42)	48(96)	134(402)	81(324)	79(395)	3.28	1.234
Create partnership with other groups for products and supplies	38(38)	50(100)	67(201)	76(304)	153(765)	3.67	1.370
Help in increasing the farm income	18(18)	26(52)	73(219)	90(360)	177(708)	3.99	1.161
Provide access to timely information about potential hazards	12(12)	23(46)	42(126)	139(556)	168(840)	4.11	1.028
Facilitate training programmes or workshops on natural hazard preparedness	19(19)	56(112)	82(246)	115(460)	112(560)	3.64	1.186
Assist in accessing financial resources or insurance for natural hazard-related losses	12(12)	52(104)	95(285)	137(548)	72(360)	3.45	1.155
Represent farmers’ interests in advocating for policies and support related to natural hazard resilience	13(13)	45(90)	56(168)	179(716)	91(455)	3.76	1.048
Provide financial assistance to the victim farmers	25(25)	48(96)	69(207)	125(500)	117(585)	3.68	1.213
Promote the adoption of resilient farming practices	9(9)	35(70)	55(165)	113(452)	172(860)	4.05	1.080

Source: Field Data, 2023.

NB: Strongly Disagree = 1 – 1.49, Disagree = 1.50 – 2.49, Neutral = 2.50 – 3.49, Agree = 3.50 – 4.49, Strongly Agree = 4.50 – 5.00

Access to timely information about potential natural hazards (Mean = 4.11) is deemed crucial, underlining the pivotal role of information in disaster preparedness. The overwhelming number of responses suggests that farmers recognize the importance of being informed about potential hazards to better prepare and respond effectively. The findings are in agreement with Mandleni et al. (2004) who found out that 86% farm households are aware of potential natural disaster. Forecasting, providing early warnings, and delivering rapid disaster risk information are fundamental pillars of disaster risk reduction (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNDRR, 2019).

Facilitating training programmes or workshops on natural hazard preparedness (Mean = 3.64) is also acknowledged but slightly less prioritized. Xu et al. (2018) shown that individuals who engage in various disaster preparedness actions, such as acquiring disaster prevention information, stockpiling emergency food, attending government-led training sessions, reinforcing their homes, and obtaining insurance, are likely to have reduced negative consequences. Assistance in accessing financial resources or insurance for natural hazard-related losses (Mean = 3.45) holds moderate importance. Representing farmers’ interests in advocating for policies and support related to natural hazard resilience (Mean = 3.76) is valued for its advocacy role. Providing financial assistance to victim farmers (Mean = 3.68) is recognized as moderately important. Most notably, promoting the adoption of resilient farming practices (Mean = 4.05) is highly regarded, emphasizing the significance of these mechanisms in encouraging practices that enhance overall resilience among cocoa farmers.

4.6. Challenges inhibiting the sustainability of associative mechanisms among farmers

From Table 6, it is discovered that the farmers’ biggest challenge in their associative mechanisms is limited support and recognition from the government or policy framework, with a mean score of 7.24. This suggests that the farmers are struggling due to inadequate policies or a lack of government assistance. This challenge could hinder their ability to access the resources, technology, and assistance needed for sustainable farming. According to Bhowmik and Sarker (2002) and A. Cox and Le (2014), support from the government, the availability of tax incentives, public education, and access to facilities all play significant roles in associative mechanisms. To overcome the challenge of limited support and recognition from the government, the establishment of farmer associations could be enhanced to amplify the collective voice of cocoa farmers in advocating for policy changes and increased government support. These associations could collaborate with non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and other stakeholders to gather data and evidence that can be used to demonstrate the impact of limited support on cocoa farmers. By way of policy, cocoa farmers could advocate for policies that provide financial incentives, subsidies, or grants to cocoa farmers to enhance productivity and resilience.

Table 6. Challenges inhibiting the sustainability of associative mechanisms among farmers

Challenges	Mean	Rank
Limited support and recognition from government or policy framework	7.24	1^st
Limited access to markets and fair pricing	6.85	2^nd
Lack of financial resources	6.70	3^rd
Poor record keeping	6.13	4^th
Inadequate governance and decision-making processes	5.81	5^th
Inefficient management	5.59	6^th
Internal conflicts and lack of cohesion among members	5.54	7^th
Inadequate participation of members	4.55	8^th
Insufficient training and capacity building programs	3.56	9^th
Difficulty in attracting and retaining new members	3.04	10^th
Number of observations = 384 Kendall’s W^a = 0.253 Chi-Square = 873.693 Df = 9 Asymp. Sig= <0.001

Source: Field data 2023.

The second most significant challenge is limited access to markets and fair pricing, with a mean score of 6.85. This issue affects the income and livelihood of farmers. The result corroborates Sonam and Martwanna (2011), who asserted that the poor market is a big challenge among the farmer groups in Bhutan. Farmers are also not able to get a premium price for products (Tashi & Wangchuk, 2016). It suggests that farmers face difficulties in reaching broader markets, getting fair prices for their products, and competing effectively. Addressing these barriers requires comprehensive interventions, including infrastructure development, market information dissemination, and capacity building to meet quality requirements. Collaborative efforts involving government agencies, NGOs, and private sector partners can create a conducive environment for market access. Government policies can better support farmers by focusing on resource access, technology adoption, and overall farm development.

The lack of financial resources ranks third with a mean score of 6.70. This challenge indicates that farmers struggle to access the necessary funds for investments, technology adoption, and overall farm development. This is consistent with Hill et al. (2007), who discovered that financial support is necessary for farmer groups to become empowered before they can become independent. Insufficient financial resources could hinder their potential for growth and improvement. Government-backed financial incentives and partnerships with financial institutions can play a pivotal role in ensuring the financial sustainability of cooperatives.

The high score of 6.13 for ‘poor record keeping’ indicates a significant challenge within the agricultural cooperative. Inadequate documentation and organisation of cooperative-related information may impede effective decision-making processes, hindering the cooperative’s ability to plan and strategize efficiently. Scoring 5.81, ‘inadequate governance and decision-making processes’, highlights potential weaknesses in leadership structures or decision-making procedures within the cooperative.

‘Inefficient management’ received a score of 5.59, suggesting suboptimal management practices within the associative mechanisms. Inefficient management refers to the inability or failure of cocoa farmers to effectively utilise resources, including human, financial, and material resources, to manage their associative mechanisms. Sometimes, the challenge can be attributed to poor planning, inadequate delegation of tasks, lack of coordination among associative mechanism members, etc. Efficient management is, however, essential for the success and productivity of associative mechanisms, and efforts should be directed towards enhancing managerial skills and processes.

The score of 5.54 for ‘internal conflicts and lack of cohesion among members’ points to the presence of disputes or a lack of unity within associative mechanisms. Resolving internal conflicts is pivotal for maintaining a harmonious and cooperative environment, fostering resilience, and fostering sustainable growth. ‘Inadequate participation of members’ scored 4.55, indicating a potential lack of engagement within associative mechanisms. Encouraging active participation is vital for building a sense of shared responsibility and commitment, contributing to the overall success of the associative mechanisms. With a score of 3.56, ‘insufficient training and capacity-building programmes’ underscores the need for educational initiatives within the cooperative. Implementing training programmes for the various associative mechanisms can enhance the skills of members, foster innovation, and improve farming practices. The challenge of ‘difficulty in attracting and retaining new members’ received a score of 3.04. Overcoming this challenge is essential for the growth and long-term sustainability of associative mechanisms, requiring strategies to make the groups an attractive and supportive community for new members.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, this study offers a comprehensive and nuanced exploration of the associative mechanisms employed by cocoa farmers in response to natural hazards, providing valuable insights into the intricate social networks that contribute to their resilience. The methodology employed in this research is appropriate, utilising only quantitative methods to understand the relationship between associative mechanisms and resilience of cocoa farmers to fight natural hazards.

The major findings of the study shed light on the prevalent natural hazards faced by cocoa farmers, with diseases, pests, and drought emerging as significant challenges. The identification of cooperatives, religious groups, and family relatives as the most prominent associative mechanisms underscores their crucial role as platforms for collective endeavors and resource-sharing among farmers. The recognition of cooperative societies, family networks, and religious groups as the primary associative mechanisms emphasizes their importance in facilitating resilience against natural hazards in cocoa farming communities. Moreover, the study reveals the farmers’ emphasis on problem definition, highlighting the critical need to clearly identify and understand the challenges they face before implementing interventions. The acknowledgment of the pivotal role of timely information in disaster preparedness underscores the importance of communication and knowledge-sharing within these associative mechanisms. The three main challenges faced by cocoa farmers in their associative mechanisms are limited support and recognition from the government or policy framework, limited access to markets and fair pricing and lack of financial resources.

The contributions of this study to the field are significant. It innovatively combines insights into associative mechanisms, problem-solving strategies, and challenges faced by cocoa farmers, providing a holistic understanding of their resilience against natural hazards. This holistic perspective contributes to the broader literature on community resilience and disaster risk reduction, offering practical implications for policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers. For future research directions, further investigation could explore the specific dynamics within each associative mechanism, considering variations across different regions or communities. Additionally, a longitudinal study could provide insights into the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of these associative mechanisms in building resilience among cocoa farmers. Further research could also delve into the potential integration of modern technology, such as early warning systems or digital platforms, to enhance information-sharing and preparedness within these associative mechanisms. Overall, this study lays the groundwork for continued exploration and refinement of strategies to strengthen resilience among cocoa farmers facing natural hazards.

Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations can be drawn to enhance the resilience and well-being of cocoa farmers in the face of natural hazards. Given the significant availability and utilization of cooperatives, efforts should be made to further promote and strengthen these cooperative platforms. Cooperative societies can serve as valuable mechanisms for collective endeavours, resource-sharing, and mutual support among cocoa farmers. Recognizing the importance of family networks and religious groups as associative mechanisms, initiatives should be developed to harness the potential of these social networks for offering support and assistance to farmers, both in times of need and for ongoing community resilience. The establishment of a multi-stakeholder platform for the various associative mechanisms will facilitate joint planning, goal setting, and decision-making. Training and capacity building are essential components, focusing on sustainable farming practices, climate resilience, and financial management. Resource mobilization efforts, knowledge sharing, and the adoption of best practices contribute to the strategy’s success. Income diversification, market linkages, and community-based early warning systems are explored collectively, while advocacy efforts address policy issues and conflicts. Efforts should be made to establish efficient information dissemination systems that provide farmers with up-to-date information on weather patterns, pest and disease outbreaks, and disaster preparedness measures. Addressing the challenge of limited government support and recognition is vital. Advocacy efforts should be undertaken to ensure that policies and frameworks recognize and support the role of associative mechanisms in enhancing farmer resilience. This includes facilitating access to markets and fair pricing and allocating resources to support these mechanisms.

Public interest statement

In the face of increasing natural hazards, a pioneering study in the Offinso South Municipality uncovers the pivotal role of social groups in enhancing the resilience of cocoa farmers. With insights from 384 farmers, the research highlights the severe challenges posed by diseases, pests, and drought to cocoa cultivation. Cooperative societies emerge as vital mechanisms, facilitating information flow, resource pooling, and collaborative problem-solving. This study passionately advocates for sustained support to these associative structures, recognizing their instrumental role in fortifying cocoa farmers. By doing so, we not only mitigate existing risks but also empower farmers to confront emerging challenges. As Ghana’s cocoa industry grapples with uncertainties, this research stands as a clarion call for collective action, urging stakeholders to fortify the resilience of cocoa farmers for a prosperous and sustainable future.

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Authors declare that they did NOT receive funding, grants, or in-kind support from agencies, industrial or commercial parties in support of the research or the preparation of the manuscript. Authors have NO association or financial involvement (i.e. consultancies/advisory board, stock ownerships/options, equity interest, patents received or pending, royalties/honorary) with any organization or commercial entity having a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or research presented in the manuscript.

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Data availability statement

Data will be made available upon request

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The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Notes on contributors

Enoch Kwame Tham-Agyekum

Enoch Kwame Tham-Agyekum holds a PhD degree in Agricultural Extension from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. He has expertise in extension education, development communication, rural development and climate studies. He is a lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness and Extension, KNUST-Kumasi, Ghana. Felix Kyei holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Agriculture from KNUST. John-Eudes Andivi Bakang holds a PhD degree in agricultural extension from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He lectures at the Department of Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness and Extension, KNUST-Kumasi, Ghana. Henry Oppong Tuffour holds a PhD degree in Soil Science from KNUST-Kumasi, Ghana. He is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Crop and Soil Science, KNUST. Winnefred Mensah is a Senior Laboratory Technician at the Department of Crops and Soil Science. Elsie Assan is a postdoctoral researcher at the Pennsylvania State University, USA.