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Research Article

CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode as an enhanced sensing platform for sensitive voltammetric determination of norepinephrine

Zahra Sarbandiana Department of Chemistry, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran
&
Hadi Beitollahib Environment Department, Institute of Science and High Technology and Environmental Sciences, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, IranCorrespondence[email protected]
Article: 2255132 | Received 28 May 2023, Accepted 30 Aug 2023, Published online: 08 Sep 2023

Abstract

In this study, a CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode (CeO2/ZnO/GCE) was fabricated as a voltammetric sensor for the determination of norepinephrine. The oxidation of norepinephrine occurred at a potential of about 260 mV less positive than that of the unmodified GCE, under optimum pH of 7.0. The modified electrode exhibited excellent electrocatalytic activity for the oxidation of norepinephrine. The differential pulse voltammetric (DPV) response in solutions with a neutral pH value increased linearly in the concentration range of 0.5 μM to 800.0 μM norepinephrine, with a low detection limit (LOD) of 0.1 μM. The CeO2/ZnO/GCE sensor was successfully applied for the detection of norepinephrine in norepinephrine ampule and urine samples.

1. Introduction

Norepinephrine, which is a derivative of catecholamines, is secreted in the adrenal medulla and plays a significant physiological role in the central nervous system. Norepinephrine has various effects on the body, including muscle and tissue control, stimulation of arteriole contraction, reduction of peripheral circulation, and activation of lipolysis in adipose tissue (Wang et al. Citation2002; Beitollahi and Mohammadi Citation2013; Ganesh and Swamy Citation2015). Norepinephrine is recognised for its chronotropic and inotropic effects on the heart, which result in an elevation of systolic blood pressure. However, several diseases, including neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroma, ganglioneuroblastoma, diabetes mellitus ketoacidosis, paraganglioma, and Parkinson’s disease, can result from extreme abnormalities in norepinephrine concentration levels (Wang et al. Citation2015; Salmanpour et al. Citation2012; Kalimuthu and John Citation2011). Therefore, the development of selective, sensitive, and reliable methods for directly determining norepinephrine levels is crucial for monitoring physiological activities and diagnosing diseases.

Generally, norepinephrine determination is typically performed using various methods, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (Peat and Gibb Citation1983), gas chromatography (Doshi and Edwards Citation1981), ion chromatography (Guan et al. Citation2000), and spectrophotometry (Zhu et al. Citation1997). However, many of these techniques have certain disadvantages, such as being time-consuming, having a complicated sample preparation process, and being expensive. Due to the fact that norepinephrine is an electro-active compound, its electrochemical detection has been the focus for electroanalytical researchers and neurochemists (Zhao, Zhang, and Yuan Citation2002; Chandrashekar and Swamy Citation2012). As a result, electrochemical techniques have been employed due to their fast response, relatively high sensitivity, portability, simplisity, ease of on-site applications, and low-cost (Karimi-Maleh et al. Citation2023; Cerdà, Rennan, and Ferreira Citation2022; Mehdizadeh et al. Citation2022; Garkani Nejad et al. Citation2021; Zhang and Karimi-Maleh, Citation2023; Harismah et al. Citation2021).

The glassy carbon electrode (GCE) is a generally used platform in electrochemical applications due to its excellent properties, including a wide potential range and low background current (Hojjati-Najafabadi et al. Citation2022; Pyman Citation2022; Sohouli et al. Citation2020; Bowers and Yenser Citation1991; Asadian et al. Citation2017). Despite its user-friendly nature, this platform has a slow electron transfer rate on its surface. To address these issues, various modified electrodes have been employed (Cui and Zhang Citation2012; Buledi et al. Citation2022).

One of the most significant properties of modified electrodes is their ability to catalyse the electrode process by significantly reducing the overpotential and enhancing the electron transfer kinetics compared to un-modified electrodes. The modification of electrodes with appropriate materials enhances the electrochemistry of electro-active drugs and biological compounds, leading to increased sensitivity and selectivity of the determinations (Bijad et al. Citation2021; Tajik et al. Citation2021; Roshanfekr Citation2023; Peyman et al. Citation2021; Mohanraj et al. Citation2020; Jayaprakash et al. Citation2018; Shahsavari et al. Citation2021).

Nanomaterials have become increasingly important in a variety of fields due to their unique properties and potential applications (Kavade et al. Citation2022; Ayoub et al. Citation2022; Beitollahi et al. Citation2016; Okeoghenea, Uyoyou, and Ikhioya Citation2022; Zhang and Karimi-Maleh, Citation2023). Nanostructured materials have become increasingly popular in analytical measurements due to their high stability, good catalytic activities, and large surface areas (Zaidi and Shin, Citation2016; Mohammadi, Beitollahi, and Bani Asadi Citation2015; Zaidi and Shin, Citation2016; Hasanpour et al. Citation2022; Karaman et al. Citation2022; Gururaj and Swamy Citation2013; Kumar et al. Citation2022). In particular, nanocomposites have been incorporated into electrochemical sensors for biological and pharmaceutical analyses, offering attractive potential for enhancing the accuracy and sensitivity of these measurements. With a wide range of sizes, shapes, and compositions available, nanocomposites are revolutionising analytical measurements (Zhang et al. Citation2020; Srinivasan et al. Citation2023).

In recent years, ZnO nanoparticles have caught the attention of numerous research groups due to their unique properties, including low-cost synthesis, high-temperature stability, biocompatibility, chemical and photochemical stability, wide band gap, and efficient electron mediation for various redox reactions. These excellent properties have led to the widespread use of ZnO nanomaterials in a variety of applications (Syed et al. Citation2020; Wolski et al. Citation2021; Fang et al. Citation2009).

On the other hand, CeO2 nanoparticles have attracted significant attention from researchers for their potential as a catalyst in electrochemical devices. This is due to its redox properties, which stem from its surface defects and oxygen vacancies. Nanosized CeO2 particles can significantly increase the surface area and expose more defects, thus enhancing their electrochemical activity for sensor applications (Choubari, Mazloom, and Ghodsi Citation2022; Chen et al. Citation2021; Singh et al. Citation2014; Dong et al. Citation2013; Yang et al. Citation2022).

Therefore, the aim of this study was to prepare a CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode (CeO2/ZnO/GCE) and evaluate its performance for the voltammetric determination of norepinephrine in aqueous solutions. The analytical method developed exhibited high performance, a wide linear range, low detection limit, and high sensitivity. The method was also successfully applied for the determination of norepinephrine in real samples.

The novelty of this work lies in the application of CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite modified GCE as a sensing platform for the voltammetric determination of norepinephrine. Also, to the best of our knowledge, no attempts have been done about the application of this nanocomposite as modifying material for norepinephrine.

2. Experimental

2.1. Chemicals and instruments

Every chemical employed in this study has been analytical grade and utilised exactly as they were given to us. Phosphate buffer solutions (PBS) with a concentration of 0.1 M were prepared using orthophosphoric acid and used as a supporting electrolyte in this study. The Millipore Direct-Q® 8 UV (ultra-violet) device (Millipore, Germany) was utilised to create the deionised water utilised during all of the tests.

The synthesis and characterisation of CeO2/ZnO was reported in our previous work (Baghbanpoor et al. Citation2022).

The Autolab PGSTAT 302 N electrochemical workstation (Eco Chemie, The Netherlands) was used for all electrochemical studies. We utilised a single-component three-electrode cell setup with a platinum auxiliary electrode, an Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) reference electrode, and CeO2/ZnO/GCE as the working electrode for conducting the measurements. The Metrohm pH-713 Model pH meter’s combination glass electrode has been employed to measure the pH values.

2.2. GCE modification

To modify the surface of the glassy carbon electrode, 1.0 mg of the CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite was weighed and dispersed in 1.0 mL of distilled water using an ultrasonic bath for 30 minutes. Next, 4 µL of the solution was placed in the centre of the GCE and allowed to dry for 20 minutes. This process resulted in the modification of the electrode.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Evaluation of the electrocatalytic activity of CeO2/ZnO/GCE towards norepinephrine

In order to explore the impact of PBS's pH value (pH 2.0–9.0) on the electrochemical detection of norepinephrine, the DPV analysis was performed. When the current response of norepinephrine in PBS was compared at various pH levels, pH 7.0 produced the highest peak current of norepinephrine. As a result, in subsequent investigations, the detection of norepinephrine was done in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0). The electrochemical oxidation mechanism of norepinephrine is shown in Scheme 1.

Scheme 1. Electrochemical oxidation mechanism of norepinephrine.

Scheme 1. Electrochemical oxidation mechanism of norepinephrine.

Using cyclic voltammetry (CV), the sensing capability of CeO2/ZnO/GCE towards the electrochemical detection of norepinephrine (500.0 µM) in 0.1 M PBS (pH = 7.0) is first assessed (). It is important to note that the unmodified GCE (curve a) displayed a modest oxidation peak current towards norepinephrine. The CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite-modified GCE demonstrated well-defined oxidation peak of 260 mV of norepinephrine, as illustrated in curve b, in comparison to the unmodified electrode. In addition, the norepinephrine oxidation currents were improved by the CeO2/ZnO/GCE. The outstanding synergistic interactions between CeO2 nanoparticles and ZnO increased the well-conductive region and accelerated the rate of electron transport between norepinephrine and the electrode surface.

Figure 1. Cyclic voltammograms of un-modified GCE (curve a) and CeO2/ZnO/GCE (curve b) in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) containing 500.0 µM norepinephrine at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1.

Figure 1. Cyclic voltammograms of un-modified GCE (curve a) and CeO2/ZnO/GCE (curve b) in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) containing 500.0 µM norepinephrine at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1.

3.2. Effect of the scan rate on the oxidation reaction of norepinephrine

To investigate the effect of the scan rate on the oxidation reaction of norepinephrine, the CV responses of 300.0 μM norepinephrine in 0.1 M PBS (pH = 7.0) at different scan rates ranging from 5 to 600 mV s−1 are recorded (). The oxidation peak currents of norepinephrine increase as the scan rate rises. The linear curve between oxidation peak currents and the square root of the scan rate (v1/2) is depicted in (Inset). With increasing v1/2, the oxidation peak currents of norepinephrine increase proportionally. This demonstrates that the norepinephrine oxidation reaction on the surface of CeO2/ZnO/GCE is a diffusion-controlled mechanism.

Figure 2. CV responses of CeO2/ZnO/GCE from a solution of 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) and 300.0 µM norepinephrine at different scan rates (1: 5 mV/s, 2: 10 mV/s, 3: 30 mV/s, 4: 50 mV/s, 5: 100 mV/s, 6: 200 mV/s, 7: 300 mV/s, 8: 400 mV/s, 9: 500 mV/s and 10: 600 mV/s). Inset: Plot of oxidation peak currents of norepinephrine vs v1/2.

Figure 2. CV responses of CeO2/ZnO/GCE from a solution of 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) and 300.0 µM norepinephrine at different scan rates (1: 5 mV/s, 2: 10 mV/s, 3: 30 mV/s, 4: 50 mV/s, 5: 100 mV/s, 6: 200 mV/s, 7: 300 mV/s, 8: 400 mV/s, 9: 500 mV/s and 10: 600 mV/s). Inset: Plot of oxidation peak currents of norepinephrine vs v1/2.

A Tafel plot was created for norepinephrine on the surface of CeO2/ZnO/GCE using data from the rising portion of the current-voltage curve to determine information about the rate-determining step (). The slope of the Tafel plot was calculated to be 0.0874 Vdecade−1, which is equal to n(1-α)F/2.3RT. Therefore, we calculated the value of electron transfer coefficients (α) equal to 0.32.

Figure 3. CV for CeO2/ZnO/GCE in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) with a scan rate of 10 mVs−1 in the presence of 300 µM norepinephrine. The inset displays the Tafel plot of the cyclic voltammogram.

Figure 3. CV for CeO2/ZnO/GCE in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) with a scan rate of 10 mVs−1 in the presence of 300 µM norepinephrine. The inset displays the Tafel plot of the cyclic voltammogram.

3.3. Chronoamperometric studies

By using chronoamperometry, the electrochemical reaction of norepinephrine at CeO2/ZnO/GCE has also been examined. The chronoamperograms of various concentrations of norepinephrine obtained at a potential step of 310 mV are shown in . In the chronoamperometric studies, the diffusion coefficient of norepinephrine was determined. In order to determine the diffusion coefficient using experimental data, the changes of response current were drawn vs of t−1/2 for different concentrations of norepinephrine ( (Inset A)). The acquired lines’ slopes were then plotted against different norepinephrine concentrations ( (Inset B)), and a straight line was obtained. From the slope of the resulting plot and using Cottrell’s equation, the diffusion coefficient of norepinephrine on the surface of the CeO2/ZnO/GCE was found to be equal to 3.0 × 10−6 cm2 s−1.

Figure 4. Single-step chronoamperograms of CeO2/ZnO/GCE sensor in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) with different concentrations of norepinephrine (1: 0.1 mM, 2: 0.5 mM, 3: 1.0 mM, and 4: 1.5 mM). insets: Variations of I vs. t−1/2 taken from the chronoamperograms (A) and plot of the corresponding slopes against norepinephrine concentration (B).

Figure 4. Single-step chronoamperograms of CeO2/ZnO/GCE sensor in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) with different concentrations of norepinephrine (1: 0.1 mM, 2: 0.5 mM, 3: 1.0 mM, and 4: 1.5 mM). insets: Variations of I vs. t−1/2 taken from the chronoamperograms (A) and plot of the corresponding slopes against norepinephrine concentration (B).

3.4. Quantitative determination of norepinephrine by DPV

Utilising the DPV method, norepinephrine on the CeO2/ZnO/GCE was measured. shows the DPV results obtained over the CeO2/ZnO/GCE in PBS (pH 7.0, 0.1 M) at norepinephrine concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 800.0 µM. The constructed sensor’s good detection capabilities were demonstrated by the increasing oxidation peak currents as the norepinephrine concentration increased. With a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9995, the plot of the norepinephrine oxidation peak current vs. concentration revealed a perfectly linear response for norepinephrine ranging from 0.5 μM to 800.0 μM. LOD was identified to be 0.1 µM (S/N = 3). Compared with the some reported electrochemical sensors of norepinephrine (), the present sensor shows a wider linear response range and a rather low LOD.

Figure 5. DPV responses at CeO2/ZnO/GCE in 0.1 M PBS (pH = 7.0) with different concentrations of norepinephrine (1: 0.5 µM, 2: 5.0 µM, 3: 10.0 µM, 4: 20.0 µM, 5: 30.0 µM, 6: 40.0 µM, 7: 50.0 µM, 8: 60.0 µM, 9: 70.0 µM, 10: 80.0 µM, 11: 90.0 µM, 12: 100.0 µM, 13: 200.0 µM, 14: 300.0 µM, 15: 400.0 µM, 16: 500.0 µM, 17: 600.0 µM, 18: 700.0 µM, and 19: 800.0 µM); Inset: A linear plot for oxidation current response of norepinephrine vs. its concentrations.

Figure 5. DPV responses at CeO2/ZnO/GCE in 0.1 M PBS (pH = 7.0) with different concentrations of norepinephrine (1: 0.5 µM, 2: 5.0 µM, 3: 10.0 µM, 4: 20.0 µM, 5: 30.0 µM, 6: 40.0 µM, 7: 50.0 µM, 8: 60.0 µM, 9: 70.0 µM, 10: 80.0 µM, 11: 90.0 µM, 12: 100.0 µM, 13: 200.0 µM, 14: 300.0 µM, 15: 400.0 µM, 16: 500.0 µM, 17: 600.0 µM, 18: 700.0 µM, and 19: 800.0 µM); Inset: A linear plot for oxidation current response of norepinephrine vs. its concentrations.

Table 1. Comparison of linear ranges and LODs of the developed sensor in this work (CeO2/ZnO/GCE) with other reported electrochemical sensors for determination of norepinephrine.

3.5. Interference studies

The interference studies were also carried out for evaluating the sensor’ selectivity towards norepinephrine detection in the presence of different substances under optimised conditions. The DPV responses of CeO2/ZnO/GCE were recorded by adding various substances into 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) containing 70.0 µM norepinephrine. Based on the findings, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+, F-, SO42-, acetaminophen, L-cysteine, histidine, glycine, glutathione, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, sucrose, lactose, fructose, glucose, citric acid, methanol, and ethanol did not show significant interference (no signal change more than ± 5%) in the determination of norepinephrine. However, dopamine, ascorbic acid, and epinephrine showed interferences.

3.6. Real sample analysis

To verify the practical application of CeO2/ZnO/GCE for electrochemical detection of norepinephrine, norepinephrine ampule, and urine samples were analysed through using the standard addition method. The norepinephrine oxidation peak currents were determined using the DPV method after adding various known concentrations of norepinephrine to the real samples. The analytical findings are shown in . According to the findings, norepinephrine recoveries for various real samples ranged from 97.3% to 103.5%, and the RSDs for five consecutive tests were below 3.5%. These findings show that CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite is an efficient material for norepinephrine sensing in real sample analysis.

Table 2. Estimation of norepinephrine in real samples using CeO2/ZnO/GCE (n = 5).

4. Conclusion

In this study, a voltammetric sensor was developed for the highly sensitive detection of norepinephrine, based on a CeO2/ZnO nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode. The CeO2/ZnO/GCE exhibited strong electro-catalytic activity towards the oxidation of norepinephrine, compared to the un-modified GCE. The sensor showed wide linear dynamic ranges, with low LOD and high sensitivity. The CeO2/ZnO/GCE sensor was successfully employed for the detection of norepinephrine in norepinephrine ampule and urine samples, with satisfactory results.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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