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Abstract
Although the Balkan Wars are regarded as a defining moment in modern Greek history that led to the expansion of Greek territory, they also constitute an important chapter in the history of internal Greek politics: the Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos consolidated his position as the country's most competent politician; the Palace, at the head of the victorious Greek army, regained much of its lost prestige after the unsuccessful Greco–Turkish war of 1897; and most importantly, the old parties began to function as a united front against Venizelos. This reaction was majorly triggered by Venizelos' handling of the country's foreign affairs in 1912‒13. The anti-Venizelists' rhetoric against Venizelos diplomacy invested heavily in tradition and the role of the king and was a harbinger of the national schism of 1915‒16.
Notes
1 I would like to thank Professor Vasilios Gounaris for his insightful criticism and comments.
2 This was the political crisis brought on by the publication of a demotic translation of St Matthew's Gospel in the newspaper Ακρόπολις.
3 N. Sawayanagi, ‘The Team of the Japanese: a concept and politics of reform in Greece (1906–1908)’, PhD diss., New York University 2009, passim.
4 G. Hering, Τα πολιτικά κόμματα στην Ελλάδα, II (Athens 2004) [1st edition in German: Die Politischen Parteien in Griechenland 1821–1936 (Munich 1992)] 699‒700; Ch. Chatziiosif, ‘Η μπελ επόκ του κεφαλαίου’, in Chatziiosif (ed.), Ιστορία της Ελλάδας του 20ού αιώνα. Όψεις πολιτικής και οικονομικής ιστορίας 1900–1940 (Athens 2009) 227.
5 V. Papacosmas, The Military in Greek Politics: The 1909 Coup d'Etat (Kent, OH 1977); N. Maroniti, Το Κίνημα στο Γουδί εκατό χρόνια μετά, Παραδοχές, ερωτήματα, νέες προοπτικές (Athens 2010) 15‒33.
6 E. Gardikas-Katsiadakis, ‘Venizelos' advent in Greek politics, 1909–1912’, in P. M. Kitromilides (ed.), Eleftherios Venizelos: The Trials of Statesmanship (Edinburgh 2006) 87‒114.
7 Ι. Nikolakopoulos and N. Oikonomou, ‘Το εκλογικό βάπτισμα του Βενιζελισμού 1910–1912’, in Συμπόσιο για τον Ελευθέριο Βενιζέλο: Πρακτικά (Athens 1980) 48‒52.
8 In December 1911 Cretan deputies sailed to Athens to participate as representatives of Crete in the Greek Parliament. Venizelos strongly disagreed with this development as a dangerous strain on Ottoman-Greek relations. When the deputies refused to accede to his views, Venizelos adjourned the parliamentary proceedings.
9 Hering, Τα πολιτικά κόμματα στην Ελλάδα. Among the few other works on Greek politics during that period are G. Dafnis, Τα ελληνικά πολιτικά κόμματα 1821–1961 (Athens 1961) 92‒134; G. Ventiris, Η Ελλάς του 1910–1920: ιστορική μελέτη (Athens 1980), G. V. Dertilis, Ιστορία του Ελληνικού κράτους 1830–1920, II (Athens 2005) and N. Maroniti, Πολιτική εξουσία και εθνικό ζήτημα στην Ελλάδα, 1880‒1910 (Athens 2009) 327–449.
10 With few exceptions, the biographies of the anti-Venizelist politicians of the first half of the 20th century were written by politicians and journalists, the majority of whom did not make sufficient use of primary sources. See, for example, I. Malosis, Η πολιτική ιστορία του Δημητρίου Π. Γούναρη, vol. I: 1902–1920 (Athens 1926); A. Kampanis, Ο Δημήτριος Γούναρης και η ελληνική κρίσις των ετών 1918–1922 (Athens 1946); G. Vouros, Παναγής Τσαλδάρης (1967–1936) (Athens 1955); A. Oikonomou, Πέτρος Πρωτοπαπαδάκης: ένας άνθρωπος και μια εποχή (Athens 1971); G. Rallis, Γεώργιος Θεοτόκης: ο πολιτικός του μέτρου (Αθήνα 1980); S. Artemakis, I. Chatzifotis, Νικόλαος Δημητρακόπουλος (Athens 1981). Though not unbiased, Nikolopoulos' work on Gounaris constitutes an exception since the author elaborated on primary sources: D. Nikolopoulos, Δημήτριος Γούναρης: πολιτική βιογραφία (Athens 2006).
11 The term pre-Venizelists has been used by the historian M. B. Sakellariou in his introduction to M. G. Sakellariou, Η Ελλάδα του Γεωργίου Α΄: Πολιτική κριτική του Μιχαήλ Σακελλαρίου στην κραυγή του εκπνέοντος Ελληνισμού των Πατρών (1910–1911) (Athens 2009) 40.
12 D. Dakin, ‘The Greek proposals for an alliance with France and Great Britain’, Balkan Studies 3.1 (1962) 48‒50; K. Svolopoulos, Ελληνική εξωτερική πολιτική 1900–1945, I (Athens 1992) 21‒3.
13 Rallis, Γεώργιος Θεοτόκης, 303.
14 Dakin, ‘The Greek proposals for an alliance’, 51‒3.
15 E. Skopetea, ‘Οι Έλληνες και οι εχθροί τους: Από τους Βαλκανικούς Πολέμους μέχρι τη Μικρασιατική Εκστρατεία’, in Chatziiosif (ed.), Ιστορία της Ελλάδας του 20ού αιώνα, 141‒9; Maroniti, Πολιτική εξουσία και εθνικό ζήτημα στην Ελλάδα, 1880–1910, 205‒24.
16 K. Svolopoulos, ‘Εισγαγωγή’, in G. Skalieris, Τα δίκαια των εθνοτήτων εν Τουρκία, 1453–1921 (Athens 1997) 9‒26; D. Xanalatos ‘The Greeks and the Turks on the eve of the Balkan Wars’, Balkan Studies 3.2 (1962) 329‒30.
17 A. Souliotis-Nikolaidis, Οργάνωσις Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, ed. Th. Veremis and K. Boura (Athens and Ioannina 1984) passim, especially 60‒71; M. Kaliakatsos, ‘Dragoumis, Macedonia and the Ottoman Empire (1903‒913): The Great Idea, Nationalism and Greek-Ottomanism’, PhD diss., University of Birmingham 2008, 160 ff.
18 The idea of cooperation between the Balkan peoples against the Ottomans and even of the formation of a Balkan federation had a long history dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. See V. Todorov, Geek Federalism during the Nineteenth Century: Ideas and Projects (New York 1995). Venizelos' approach to the alliance was closer to that of Charilaos Trikoupis, who unsuccessfully tried to promote a Balkan anti-Ottoman understanding in 1891. S. Sfetas ‘Όψεις των ελληνο-βουλγαρικών σχέσεων μετά το Συνέδριο του Βερολίνου: η αποτυχία μιας ελληνοβουλγαρικής προσέγγισης (1878–1900)’, Μακεδονικά 36 (2007) 139‒71; C. Svolopoulos, ‘Charilaos Tricoupis et l'entente Balkanique: réalités et hypothèses formulées à l'occasion de sa visite à Belgrade (Juin 1891)’, in Greek-Serbian Cooperation 1830–1908: Collection of Reports from the Second Greek-Serbian Symposium (Belgrade 1982) 69‒74.
19 E. Gardikas-Katsiadakis Greece and the Balkan Imbroglio 1910–1913 (Athens 1995) 92‒4; M. Llewellyn Smith, ‘Venizelos' diplomacy, 1910–1923: from Balkan Alliance to Greek-Turkish settlement’, in Kitromilides (ed.), Eleftherios Venizelos: The Trials of Statesmanship, 143‒5.
20 Κήρυξ Χανίων, 17 November 1909. M. Christopoulos, ‘O ονειροπόλος πραγματοποιός: ο Ελευθέριος Βενιζέλος και η Μεγάλη Ιδέα 1909–1923’, in Ελευθέριος Βενιζέλος: Ιδεολογικές αφετηρίες και επιδράσεις (Athens 2014) 255‒71. For Venizelos' views concerning possible cooperation with Bulgaria see also Y. Konstantinova, ‘The views of Eleftherios Venizelos on the Balkan policy of Greece (1910–1916)’, Etudes Balkaniques 47.1 (2012) 57‒63; C. Svolopoulos, ‘Eleuthère Vénizèlos et les dilemmes de la politique extérieure de la Grèce lors de la crise Balkanique de 1908’, Balkan Studies 25.2 (1984) 485‒9.
21 Gardikas-Katsiadakis, Greece and the Balkan Imbroglio, 46‒52.
22 Historical Archives, Benaki Museum, Georgios Baltatzis Archive, dossier 1910, Gounaris to Baltatzis, Patras, 15 September 1910.
23 Gennadius Library Archives, Stephanos Dragoumis Archive, 113, f. 1, doc. 20, Dragoumis to Kallergis, Chania, 4 February 1913.
24 Η κραυγή του εκπνέοντος Ελληνισμού (Patras), 16 September 1912.
25 S. I. Stephanou, (ed.) Ελευθερίου Βενιζέλου τα Κείμενα, I (Athens 1981) 546.
26 Σκριπ, 29 August 1912. See similar comments in the anti-Venizelist Αστραπή, 17 September 1912.
27 Η κραυγή του εκπνέοντος Ελληνισμού, 23 September 1912.
28 Ibid.; cf. V. Gounaris, ‘Μεταξύ παράδοσης και εκσυγχρονισμού. Ανασκοπώντας τη σχέση της Ελλάδας και των Βαλκανίων 100 χρόνια μετά τους πολέμους του 1912–1913’ (speech commemorating 26 October 2012, forthcoming).
29 Η κραυγή του εκπνέοντος Ελληνισμού, 23 September 1912; 2 December 1912.
30 Εφημερίς των Συζητήσεων της Βουλής (henceforth ΕΣΒ), 1st period, session 31, 21 June 1913, 292; 2nd period, session 6, 13 November 1913, 103.
31 E. Kofos, Η Ελλάδα και το Ανατολικό Ζήτημα 1875–1881 (Athens 2001) 227‒8.
32 Hellenic Literary and Historical Archive, Georgios Streit Archive, dossier 38.3, Lampros to Streit, Rome, 4 October 1912.
33 Hellenic Literary and Historical Archive, Eleftherios Venizelos Archive, 01–001, Gennadius to Venizelos, London, 28 October/10 November 1910.
34 Gennadius eventually supported the alliance in July 1912, though for reasons entirely different than those for which it was concluded. M. Christopoulos, ‘Ο Ιωάννης Γεννάδιος και η διαμόρφωση της εθνικής πολιτικής της Ελλάδας’, PhD diss., Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 2012, 285‒8.
35 Ακρόπολις had been mild Venizelist until 1912. In 1913 it shifted to the anti-Venizelist camp because of its disappointment with Venizelos' Balkan diplomacy. D. Papadimitriou, ‘Ακρόπολη’, in L. Droulia and G. Koutsopanagou (eds.), Εγκυκλοπαίδεια του Ελληνικού Τύπου, I (Athens 2008) 159.
36 Ακρόπολις, 24 July 1912.
37 V. Dousmanis, Απομνημονεύματα, ιστορικαί σελίδες τας οποίας έζησα (Athens 1946) 100.
38 Σκριπ, 30 August 1912.
39 V. Gounaris, Τα Βαλκάνια των Ελλήνων: από το Διαφωτισμό έως τον Α΄ Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο (Thessaloniki 2007) 218‒19. Several newspapers sought to highlight the positive aspects of Bulgaria reproducing or reporting, for example, the impressions of the Venizelist representative Thalis Koutoupis, based on a fact-finding mission to Bulgaria: Καιροί, 22 August 1912; Ακρόπολις, 27, 28 and 29 August 1912.
40 Πρακτικά Συνεδριάσεων της Βουλής, session 3, 2 October 1912, 8‒9. The government was supported by Mavromichalis, Theotokis, Dimitrakopoulos and Panagiotis Aravantinos. The latter represented the parliamentary group of the ‘Sociologists’ (Κοινωνιολόγοι).
41 S. Ploumidis, ‘From the old to the new greater Greece’, Etudes Balkaniques 49.2 (2013) 71‒3.
42 Σκριπ, 9 October 1912.
43 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 19, 2 March 1913, 143.
44 Ibid. Venizelos was involved during that period in long negotiations with the Bulgarians and the Serbians for the division of the spoils and had realized that if the Florina district and the Greco-Serbian frontier were to be safeguarded he had to give up any claims for the region east of the river Strymon: Gardikas-Katsiadakis, Greece and Balkan Imbroglio, 183–184; Llewellyn Smith, ‘Venizelos' Diplomacy’, 147.
45 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 19, 2 March 1913, 146.
46 Ibid., 143–144. Theotokis and Dimitrakopoulos also pointed out the damage done to the ongoing negotiations by Venizelos' comments: Σκριπ, 4 March 1913.
47 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 19, 2 March 1913, 145‒6. The fate of Greeks residing beyond the Greek borders, who had remained unprotected, was one of the key issues underlying the Opposition's criticism. In an address to Venizelos, Rallis declared: ‘You see only trophies, while I mourn all the people who have been sacrificed for nothing…': ΕΣΒ, 2nd period, session 6, 13 November 1913, 104. Ion Dragoumis expressed similar opinions in an article in Noumas entitled ‘Τιμή και ανάθεμα’: R. Stavridi-Patrikiou, ‘Ίων Δραγούμης και εθνικισμός’, in Η Ελλάδα των Βαλκανικών Πολέμων (1910–1914) (Athens 1993) 250‒1.
48 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 19, 2 March 1913, 146.
49 ΕΣΒ, op. cit. 151; ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 20, 4 March 1913, 176.
50 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 19, 2 March 1913, 151.
51 Σκριπ, 4 March 1913.
52 Σκριπ, 5 March 1913.
53 Ventiris, Η Ελλάς του 1910–1920, 158‒60; G. Ioannidou-Bitsiadou, ‘Ελληνοσερβική προσέγγιση και καθορισμός ελληνοσερβικών συνόρων’, in Συμπόσιο: Η συνθήκη του Βουκουρεστίου και η Ελλάδα (Thessaloniki 1988) 85; L. Chasiotis, Ελληνοσερβικές σχέσεις 1913–1918 (Thessaloniki 2004) 34‒5.
54 ΕΣΒ, 3rd period, session 40, 24 February 1914, 787.
55 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 31, 21 June 1913, 288.
56 Ibid., 283.
57 Ibid., 282.
58 Ibid., 283.
59 Ibid., 277‒8.
60 The Treaty of Athens was a very moderate settlement of the outstanding differences between Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Its content did not particularly favour Greece as it neither exacted a war indemnity nor ensured the rights of Greeks still living in the empire: Gardikas-Katsiadakis, Greece and the Balkan Imbroglio, 269; S. Antonopoulos, Αι συνθήκαι Λονδίνου, Βουκουρεστίου και Αθηνών (Athens 1917) 160‒75, 202.
61 ΕΣΒ, 2nd period B, session 5, 12 November 1913, 39. The Greco-Serbian Treaty provided for a Greco-Bulgarian frontier line in the event of a negotiated settlement (article IV, annex III): Διπλωματικά έγγραφα 1913–1917: Ελληνοσερβική Συνθήκη Συμμαχίας, εισβολή Γερμανοβουλγάρων εις Μακεδονίαν (Athens 1917), documents 2 and 4; Gardikas-Katsiadakis, Greece and the Balkan Imbroglio, 203.
62 Venizelos recognized their rights so as to secure Romania's support on the question of Kavala: Gardikas-Katsiadakis, Greece and the Balkan Imbroglio, 239.
63 ΕΣΒ, 3rd period, session 38, 20 February 1914, 702ff.
64 ΕΣΒ, 3rd period, session 62, 9 December 1914, 1391‒1392.
65 Πρακτικά Συνεδριάσεων της Βουλής, session 6, 13 November 1913, 3.
66 See also the observations of Hering, Τα πολιτικά κόμματα, ΙΙ, 824.
67 ΕΣΒ, 1st period, session 31, 21 June 1913, 280; 2nd period, session 6, 13 November 1913, 104‒5.
68 Σκριπ, 6, 7 March 1913; Ploumidis, ‘From the old to the new greater Greece’, 85‒6; G. Mavrogordatos, ‘Τα σπέρματα του διχασμού’, in Η Ελλάδα των Βαλκανικών Πολέμων (1910–1914) 229‒30.
69 ΕΣΒ, 3rd period, session 40, 24 February 1914, 771.
70 Kampanis, Ο Δημήτριος Γούναρης, 68.