The Dairy at Kenwood

Abstract

Kenwood is famous for the Library added to the house in 1767 by Robert Adam for the 1st Earl of Mansfield (1705–93), the great lawyer; for the giant portico at its entrance; and for the stucco ornament which Adam applied to its south fac¸ade, conspicuous from Hampstead Heath. Lord Mansfield owned it for 39 years, and made other attractive alterations to the interior, but otherwise left it in the rambling form in which he found it. By contrast, his nephew and heir, the 2nd Earl of Mansfield (1727–96), who only owned it for three years and five months, transformed it into the modern country house whose appearance it still retains, by the addition of two wings projecting northwards and an office wing on the east side, which together more than doubled the floor area of the 1st Earl’s house. The 2nd Earl also engaged Humphry Repton to design improvements to the landscape setting of Kenwood, and added stables, lodges, a model farm and a dairy. These buildings are styled in the spare and ingenious geometrical manner of the 1790s, arresting in itself, and particularly so in the case of the office wing and the Dairy. Yet they have scarcely been discussed in the art-historical literature and their history has never been published. This article discusses one of them, the Dairy, considering the people who commissioned it and the architects who may (or may not) have designed it; and it describes the alterations made by the 3rd Earl (1777–1840) and 4th Earl of Mansfield (1806–98).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Right Honourable the Earl of Mansfield and Mansfield for permission to examine the archives at Scone Palace in 1997–98, and to reproduce pictures in his possession there. In those years I was particularly helped by his kind and enthusiastic archivist, the late Mrs Morag Norris. Prof Hamish Scott and Mr Colin Thom read earlier versions of this paper, and I have particularly benefited from exchanges of correspondence with them. I am grateful to Ms Laura Houliston, Ms Pamela Hunter, Mr Tony Kitto, Dr Sarah Law, Dr Frances Sands, Mr Nicholas Savage and Prof Gerard Vaughan for specific information, identified in the notes. I am indebted to Mr Richard Lea and Mr Mark Fenton for their fine drawings. And I am particularly indebted to Mr Peter Marston and Mrs Pat Payne for their superb photographs of the Dairy.

Notes

1 London, British Museum (hereafter BM), Prints and Drawings, Crace Plans, Portfolio XXXVI, 97, ‘Plan of lower story of Kenwood House Offices & adjoining grounds Shewing the principal Drains & Cisspools — Which are represented by the black Lines &c 1797’.

2 London, The National Archives (hereafter TNA), PROB 11/1230, fo. 147.

3 HM Scott, ‘Murray, David, seventh Viscount Stormont and second earl of Mansfield (1727–1796)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford, 2004 (hereafter ODNB), XXXIX, 884–87; Hamish Scott, ‘The rise of the House of Mansfield: Scottish service nobility in the emerging British State’, in Gabriele Haug-Moritz, Hans Peter Hye and Marlies Raffler (eds), Adel im Langen 18.Jahrhundert, Wien, 2009, 113–39.

4 David Constantine, Fields of Fire, London, 2001, 42–43.

5 For the friendship with Hamilton, see Constantine, op. cit., passim, and Brian Fothergill, Sir William Hamilton Envoy Extraordinary, London, 1969, 122 and 202. They had been at Westminster School together [Constantine, op. cit., 3]; Stormont visited Hamilton in Naples in 1768 [Constantine, op. cit., 42–43]; Hamilton visited Stormont in Vienna in 1772 [Fothergill, op. cit., 122], in Paris in 1776 [Constantine, op. cit., 93–94], and in Stormont’s Portland Place house in 1783–84 [Constantine, op. cit., 126]. For the friendship with Townley, see below.

6 Arthur T Bolton, The Architecture of Robert and James Adam, II, London, 1922, 105, 106; David King, The Complete Works of Robert and James Adam, London, 1991, 90. I am grateful to Mr Colin Thom for an account and opinion on No. 37 Portland Place, and for the date of its purchase, taken from the Blair Adam Muniments [NRAS 1454/4/21/24], confirmed by the Middlesex Deeds Registry [MDR 1778/4/457], and The London Evening Post, 13 August 1778. Bolton and King, op. cit., give the purchase date as 1779.

7 Dorian Gerhold, Wandsworth Past, London, 1988, 57–58; Rita J Ensing, ‘West Hill; the making of a noble retreat’, Wandsworth Historian, LX, Summer 1990. Scone Palace, Mansfield MSS (hereafter cited as Scone), vol. 181 includes Lord Stormont’s accounts for the Wandsworth house, beginning in 1780.

8 Elizabeth and Florence Anson (eds), Mary Hamilton, London, 1925, 289. Until she sold it in 1794, Little Grove House belonged to Ann, widow of Sir Edward Willes, the 1st Lord Mansfield’s successor as Solicitor-General in 1766, who had bought it in 1767, and who died on 14 January 1787 [William Page (ed.), The Victoria History of the County of Hertford, II, London, 1908, 339; John Edwin Cussans, The History of Hertfordshire, III, Cashio Hundred, London, 1881, 61; Sir Lewis Namier and John Brooke, The House of Commons 1754–1790, London, 1964, 642]. Lord Stormont must have rented it, presumably between Willes’s death and its sale, which occurred in the year after he inherited Kenwood.

9 It is unclear how often he visited Scone; but on 1 August 1773 Henry Seymour Conway told Sir William Hamilton that ‘Lord Stormont . . . has been already set out above a week ago for Scotland’ [London, British Library, Add MS 40,714, fo. 126]. His first wife, who died in 1766, was buried at Scone [TNA, PROB 11/1280/2, fo. 10], and he presumably attended her burial.

10 Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3 (4), letter from James Sharpe at Kincarrochie, near Perth, to Lord Stormont, 13 June 1790: ‘When I gave my consent to the pulling down and utterly demolishing the old church at Scone, which stood in the way of your Lordships improvements. I never assented to the parting with the burial ground’.

11 Pamela Horn, William Marshall (1745–1818) and the Georgian Countryside, Sutton Courtenay, 1982, 27.

12 Apart from the Dairy, these buildings will be discussed in an article in the succeeding volume of English Heritage Historical Review.

13 Scone, Bundle 578, note (perhaps in the hand of the 3rd Earl) on the verso of a letter from the Bishop of London, 19 July 1793, giving his consent, as the freeholder of Ken Wood, to the realignment of the road. It is not clear why the 3rd Earl regarded the deferral of this proposal as ‘very proper’, except in acknowledgement of the 1st Earl’s great age. He would certainly have been disturbed; according to John Carswell, for the last five years of his life (that is from 1788 to 1793) the 1st Earl never spent a night anywhere but Kenwood [John Carswell, The Saving of Kenwood and the Northern Heights, London, 1982, 19].

14 Scott, in ODNB, cit., 886.

15 Scone, Box 112/2, loose paper, is a memorial which reveals that he signed the proposals on 7 August 1793, and went away on the following day. That his destination was West Cowes is revealed by a letter from his gardener, Edward Hunter, sent to him there on 25 August [Box 74, Bundle 3/8], and another from his architect, George Saunders, on 28 August [Scone, Bundle 1385].

16 Kenwood House, Archive, copy of letter from Lord Mansfield (at West Cowes) to Sir William Hamilton (at Naples), 29 August 1793 (transcribed by Mr Jacob Simon). No doubt he wanted to pass on the sea-bathing information to Hamilton, who bathed daily at Posilippo or Portici [Carlo Knight, in Ian Jenkins and Kim Sloan (eds), Vases and Volcanoes, London, 1996, 15].

17 Scone, vol. 231 [unpaginated], 1794 Octr. 3, 1794 Decr, 5, 1795 April 30, 1796 Aug. 14.

18 GEC[okayne], The Complete Peerage, VIII, London, 1932, 390, 391.

19 TNA, PROB 11/1230, fo. 147.

20 John Gifford, Perth and Kinross, New Haven and London, 2007, 694, describes the marble monument, ‘a console-flanked rectangular niche containing a pedestal and urn’.

21 TNA, PROB 11/1280/2, fo. 10. The bust of Pope, by Roubiliac, is discussed in Malcolm Baker, ‘Busts and friendship: the identity and context of William Murray’s version of Roubiliac’s bust of Alexander Pope’, Sculpture Journal, XXII/2, 2013, 66–70; and in Fame, Friendship and the Portrait Bust (exhibition catalogue), Waddesdon Manor, 2014, cat. no. 30. I am indebted to Ms Laura Houliston for drawing my attention to this. The bust is dated 1740 [William Kurtz Wimsatt, The Portraits of Alexander Pope, New Haven and London, 1965, 238, fig. 59.1]. The other busts have not been identified.

22 Sir James Balfour Paul (ed.), The Scots Peerage, II, Edinburgh, 1911, 520–23; HM Scott, ‘Cathcart, Charles Schaw, ninth Lord Cathcart (1721–76)’, ODNB, X, 538–39.

23 Her mother, Jean or Jane, Lady Cathcart, was Sir William Hamilton’s sister [Balfour Paul, cit., 521]. For Hamilton, see Constantine, op. cit.; Fothergill, op. cit.; Jenkins and Sloan, op. cit.; and Geoffrey V Morson, ‘Hamilton, Sir William (17xx–1803)’, ODNB, XXIV, 922–27.

24 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 391.

25 Anson, op. cit., 37. Mary Hamilton’s letter is not dated, but expresses sorrow at news of the death of Lord Cathcart, which took place on 14 August. She wrote from Spa, and a letter dated 15 August notes what seems to be her first meeting with Mr Jenkinson. Jenkinson (the future 1st Earl of Liverpool, but previously Lord Bute’s secretary) had his intelligence from Sir William and Lady Hamilton, whom he had spoken to in Geneva, when they were on their way from Naples to Paris to visit the Stormonts. The Hamiltons were therefore not first-hand witnesses; they had presumably had this account previously by letter from Lord Stormont. Mary Hamilton’s report was therefore fourth-hand.

26 Anson, op. cit., 243.

27 These children were David William, born on 7 March 1777; George, born in 1780; Charles, born on 22 August 1781; Henry, born on 6 August 1784; and Charlotte, born on 14 December 1789 [Balfour Paul, op. cit., VIII, 210].

28 Anson, op. cit., 236.

29 Ibid., 63, 130, 164, 231.

30 Ibid., 245

31 Ibid., 236.

32 Constantine, op. cit., 126.

33 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 17r.

34 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 34v. Lady Caroline was born on 14 December 1789 [Balfour Paul, loc. cit.].

35 Scone, Box 112/2, loose paper.

36 Richard Hewlings, ‘The Contriver of Chirk’, National Trust Historic Houses & Collections Annual, 2012, 53; Geoffrey Beard, RICHARD HEWLINGS 76 English Heritage Historical Review, Volume 8, 2013 03-hewlings - Press ‘William Winde and interior design’, Architectural History, XXVII, 1984, 155; Briony AK McDonagh, ‘Women, enclosure and estate improvement in eighteenth-century Northamptonshire’, Rural History, XX, 2009, 153.

37 BM, Townley Papers, TY 7/1611.

38 Finest Prospects (exhibition catalogue), Kenwood, 1986, No. 101, 121–22.

39 Betsy Rodgers, Georgian Chronicle, London, 1958, 99–100. For Fitzroy Farm, demolished c.1840, see Alan Farmer, ‘Colonel Fitzroy’s Rustic Villa’, Camden History Review, X, 1982, 19–20. It is illustrated in BM, Crace Collection, Portfolio XXXVI. A plan of the estate is in British Library, Map Room, Crace Plans, Portfolio XIV, 53.

40 Anson, op. cit., 289.

41 See, for example, Pierre de la Ruffiniere du Prey, ‘Eight Maids a-Milking’, Country Life, CLXXXI, 5 March 1987, 120–21; and Pierre de la Ruffiniere du Prey, ‘Queens of Curds and Cream’, Country Life, CLXXXI, 12 March 1987, 104–5.

42 Scone, vol. 231.

43 Scone, Bundle 974/2.

44 Scone, Bundle 974/9/c.

45 Scone, Bundle 974/9/a.

46 Scone, Bundle 1203/32; Bundle 974/2.

47 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 71v.

48 Scone, Bundle 1203/8a. The date does not include a year, but it is bundled with other vouchers of 1796.

49 Scone, Bundle 1203/17a.

50 Scone, Bundle 1203/12.

51 Scone, Bundle 1203/26.

52 Scone, Bundle 1203/28.

53 Scone, Bundle 1203/27.

54 Scone, Bundle 1203/3.

55 Scone, Bundle 1203/8d.

56 Scone, Bundle 974/5.

57 Scone, Bundle 974/3.

58 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 85v.

59 Scone, Scone, Bundle 974/9/d.

60 Scone, Bundle 1203/5.

61 Scone, Bundle 1203/34.

62 Scone, Bundle 1203/20.

63 Scone, Bundle 1203/1a.

64 Scone, Bundle 1203/1b and 1c.

65 Scone, Bundle 1203/33.

66 Sir Lewis Namier and John Brooke, The House of Commons 1754–1790, II, London, 1964, 551; RG Thorne, The House of Commons 1790–1820, IV, London, 1986, 98. Greville’s mother, Elizabeth, dowager Countess of Warwick, was the sister of Countess Louisa’s mother, Jean or Jane, Lady Cathcart; both were the sisters of Sir William Hamilton.

67 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 388; Balfour Paul, op. cit., II, 523; James Oldham, ‘Murray, William, first earl of Mansfield (1705–93)’, ODNB, XXXIX, 997, 999.

68 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 390.

69 Scone, Bundle 258/3.

70 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 390.

71 TNA, PROB 11/1280/2.

72 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 392.

73 Ibid., 390.

74 His father’s will, which left everything to him except those items, specified above, which were left to his mother, was proved on 20 September 1796 [TNA, PROB 11/1280/2].

75 Jane Davies Conservation, Architectural Paint Research: Kenwood House, Dairy Complex, May 2012, 6.

76 Scone, Bundle 1063 (A/10 and 11).

77 Carswell, op. cit., 26.

78 Kenwood House, Archive, IBK 1028 (Household account book, 1801–2), includes many payments relating to a house in Colchester. Scone, vol. 200, fo. 35, includes ‘Bills from 21 May to 6 August 1798 . . . in Town and Colchester’. Gosfield Hall, Essex, was valued in December 1821, and bought by a Mr Barnard in 1824 [Scone, Bundle 1198]; the sale may not have been completed because it was also sold to Mr Courtauld on 10 September 1855 [Scone, Bundle 1089/4].

79 Scone, vol. 200, fo. 69, includes a payment on 6 July 1798 ‘to Prickett for making Plans of N. Wales estate’.

80 The Cheshire estate in 1840 consisted of Eardswick Hall, Sandiway Farm, Anderton Farm and its saltworks; in Derbyshire he owned an estate near Ashbourne and a farm called Ballidon Farm [Scone, Bundle 710]. The 4th Earl employed the Chester ‘builder’ (actually an architect) John Douglas to build new buildings at Anderton Farm in 1852–53 [Scone, Bundle 880, payments on 10 December 1852 and 28 July 1853].

81 A statement of that year in Scone, Bundle 675, divides his income into four heads: 1. Entailed estates (Annandale £9,917; Middlesex £3,201; Cheshire £1,500). 2. Estates at his disposal (Bengate £780; Perth and Fife £7,367; Clackmannan £5,082). 3. Mortgages (Lord Melbourne £1,080; Lord Lynedoch £4,199; Earl Cathcart £500). 4. Bonds etc £5,017. JV Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 1660–1914, Oxford, 1986, 288–95, gives some comparative incomes. I am very grateful to Prof Hamish Scott for his views on Lord Mansfield’s income.

82 David Walker, ‘Scone Palace, Perthshire’, in Howard Colvin and John Harris (eds), The Country Seat, London, 1970, 210–14; John Cornforth, ‘Scone Palace, Perthshire — II’, Country Life, CLXXXII, 18 August 1988, 72–76.

83 John Oldham, The Mansfield Manuscripts and the Growth of English Law in the Eighteenth Century, Chapel Hill and London, 1990, 9.

84 Colvin, op. cit., 81; Scone, Bundle 2341.

85 Scone, Box 79, Bundle 975.

86 Scone, Bundle 975/7, ‘For Portland Place . . . 1816 Paid for Advertisements for disposing of the House’.

87 Scone, Box 75, Bundle 3/1; Box 108, Bundle 6.

88 Scone, Bundle 1198.

89 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 89.

90 The earliest sign of their occupation of Langham House is on 3 June 1834, when they paid for upholstery there [Scone, vol. 204, fo. 14]. In September 1835 they bought fire engines for it and had the organ tuned [Scone, vol. 204, fo. 21]. Two years’ rent was paid to Lady Langham on 7 March and 23 July 1836 [ibid., fos 82, 84], more at midsummer 1837 [Scone, vol. 205, fo. 82], midsummer 1838 [Scone, vol. 206, fo. 15], Michaelmas 1838 [ibid., fo. 16], Michaelmas 1839 [Scone, vol. 206, fo. 82], and 7 March 1840 [Scone, vol. 206, fos 84, 87]. They paid for work there — in the gardens on 12 April 1835 [Scone, vol. 205, fo. 51], carpenter’s work on 7 March 1837 [ibid., fo. 19], work in the garden on 27 August 1836 [ibid., fo. 59], carpenters’ and plumber’s work on 7 March 1837 [ibid., fo. 85], plumber’s work on 5 September 1837 [ibid., fo. 82], carpenter’s work on 7 June and 4 September 1838 [Scone, vol. 206, fos 14, 15], and again on 7 March 1839 [ibid., fo. 18]. On 7 March 1842 the fixture of hatchments both at Kenwood and Langham House was paid for, presumably having marked the death of the 3rd Earl in 1840 [Scone, vol. 207, fo. 51].

91 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 392.

92 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 23, ‘1831 March 8 . . . Pelham — for Baths — Hastings 2. 13. 0’.

93 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 93, ‘1831 Decr. 4 . . . Duttson for warm + dome Baths + sea-bathing (Dover) 1. 14. 6’.

94 Cornforth, op. cit., 76.

95 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 392.

96 TNA, PROB 11/1280/2, fo. 10.

97 C[okayne], op. cit., VIII, 392.

98 Scone, Bundle 1205/B (ii), ‘1803, Decr. 19.for Shells for ye Grotto 2.5.6.’, and ‘1804 Jany. 30 Mr Heslop for 2 Boxes of Shells on Ly Mansfields Acct 9.-.-’; Scone, Bundle 1205/C/11, ‘Earl Mansfield. Dr to Robt Heslop. 1803 Octr. 27th. To 2 Boxes of Shells Corals Spars and attendance Sundry times at Keen Wood 9.0.0.’.

99 Scone, Bundle 2341/8. It holds four cards, endorsed ‘Entrance Hall’; ‘Supper room’; ‘Billiard room’, and in pencil ‘Ante room’; and ‘Clock Room’.

100 Balfour Paul (ed.), op. cit., VIII, 212.

101 Scone, vol. 209 [unpaginated], 7 March 1846.

102 Scone, vol. 210 [unpaginated], 7 March 1850.

103 Scone, vol. 210 [unpaginated], 7 March 1849.

104 Scone, vol. 210 [unpaginated], no date (‘for 1851 season’).

105 Scone, Bundle 1089/2.

106 C[okayne], op. cit., 393.

107 Scone, vol. 209 [unpaginated], 7 March 1846.

108 Carswell, op. cit., 29–31, 49–50, 91, 94 and 103; CB King Ltd, Catalogue of Choice & Valuable Furnishings . . . within Kenwood Mansion Hampstead, 6–9 November 1922.

109 J Norris Brewer, The Beauties of England and Wales, X, London, 1816, 176.

110 It is shown below that his acquaintance with Townley pre-dated September 1795, but it is not known exactly when it began. In view of Townley’s fame as a collector, however, it is likely that the Mansfields had known him for some time. THE DAIRY AT KENWOOD English Heritage Historical Review, Volume 8, 2013 77 03-hewlings - Press

111 Scone, Bundle 1315/3.

112 Jacob Simon, ‘Humphry Repton at Kenwood: a missing Red Book’, Camden History Review, XI, 1984, 5–6. The Red Book at Scone Palace is no longer missing.

113 Ibid., 7. Repton also advised Lord Mansfield’s other neighbour, Thomas Erskine of Evergreen Hill (west of Kenwood) (idem); Simon gives 1792 as the date for this, but Stephen Daniels, Humphry Repton: Landscape Gardening and the Geography of Georgian England, New Haven and London, 1999, 227–28, gives 1795 and 1810 as the terminal dates of Erskine’s ownership of Evergreen Hill.

114 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 69r, ‘1795, July 23 Mr. Emes one day 10. 10. 00. His first day is 10G. every subsequent day 2G.’.

115 Colvin, op. cit., 853–54.

116 Scone Palace, Repton’s Red Book. Repton dated it ‘At Kenwood May 8th 1793’, presumably the date of his survey, and ‘Harestreet by Romford May 20th 1793’, presumably the date of its submission. On 6 May Repton had told Reginald Pole-Carew that ‘On Wednesday I go to Lord Mansfield’s at Kenwood’ (Simon, op. cit., 6).

117 Scone, Bundle 578; Simon, op. cit., 6, quotes Repton’s letter, and his bill of £78 15s. The postscript is bound into the Red Book, on a page headed ‘July 1st 1793’.

118 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 17v, ‘1793 Aug. 6 MM Forster + Bosanquet for the Use of Mr. Repton by Drt. on Hoare 78. 15. 0. This clears Mr. Reptons Acct.’.

119 Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3/3.

120 Scone, Bundle 578, Repton’s letter, 8 September, endorsed by Lord Mansfield on 14 September; Simon, op. cit., 7. See below, under George Saunders.

121 Scone, Bundle 578, Repton’s letter, 8 September 1793; for the professional relationship of Repton and Wilkins, see Colvin, op. cit., 854 and 1121, and Daniels, op. cit., 79, 86–89, 118–19, 164 and 217.

122 Humphry Repton, Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, London, 1803, 201 (note).

123 Scone, Bundle 578.

124 Colvin, op. cit., 46.

125 Eileen Harris, The Genius of Robert Adam; his Interiors, New Haven and London, 2001, 181–82 and 354 (note 69).

126 Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3/1 and 3.

127 Scone, Bundle 1385, note in the hand of the 3rd Earl on a letter from George Saunders to the 2nd Earl, advising structural repairs, 28 August 1793. The 3rd Earl wrote: ‘I suppose this repair was not properly done for I had to do it at considerable expense afterwards. Bonomi was employed — brick pillars were put under the Columns. M.’. The 3rd Earl’s note is not dated, and is also ambiguous; it could suggest either that Bonomi was employed to undertake the recommended repair, or that Bonomi was employed ‘to do it . . . afterwards’. For Bonomi, see Colvin, op. cit., 141–43.

128 The evidence for their employment by the 2nd and 3rd Earls at Kenwood will be given in a subsequent article.

129 Mr Colin Thom has given me the following further information about the involvement of James Hastie (d. 1802) and his brother Hepburn Hastie (d. 1805) with the Adam family. Between February 1774 and January 1775 they were co-developers with the Adams of about 22 plots on the west side of Great Portland Street; between July and September 1775 they took leases from the Adams in the Charlotte (now Hallam) Street area; in March 1776 they leased a block, Nos 24–32, on the east side of Portland Place. This and much more about them will appear (with the references) in Colin Thom’s account of the Portland Place area in the forthcoming Marylebone volume of The Survey of London.

130 TNA, PROB 11/1238.

131 Bolton, op. cit., II, 102. As Mr Colin Thom points out to me, these two houses were a mirrored pair, and thus do not exactly correspond to Lord Mansfield’s house opposite.

132 Scone, Bundle 974/2.

133 Scone, Bundle 1400.

134 Scone, Bundle 94/18. He was paid £22 14s. for bricklayer’s work, cleaning the cesspool in the bakehouse, altering a copper in the scullery, repairing tiling in a privy, paving at the pump, cleaning the drain from the brewhouse; but also for making a new drain next to the road, and repairing the head to the pond.

135 Scone, Bundle 1400.

136 Scone, Bundle 94/13 and 14.

137 Scone, Bundle 94/9.

138 Scone, Bundle 94/16.

139 Ingrid Roscoe et al., Biographical Dictionary of Sculptors in Britain 1660–1851, New Haven and London, 2009, 879–80; Beard and Gilbert, op. cit., 640–41.

140 Francis Russell, ‘Luton Hoo, Bedfordshire — I’, Country Life, CLXXXVI, 16 January 1992, 47.

141 Ashington, Northumberland Museum and Archives, 2DE, 23/2/4.

142 Ibid., 2DE, 23/3/1.

143 Geoffrey Beard and Christopher Gilbert (eds), Dictionary of English Furniture Makers 1660–1840, Leeds 1986, 315–17; Eileen Harris, The Furniture of Robert Adam, London, 1963, 29.

144 Scone, Bundle 1400/11 (4 March 1771).

145 Geoffrey Beard, Georgian Craftsmen and their Work, London, 1966, 72, 168; Geoffrey Beard, Decorative Plasterwork in Great Britain, London, 1975, 230 and 237; Ashleigh Murray, ‘Joseph Rose and Company’, Georgian Group Journal, XX, 2012, 103.

146 Mary Mauchline, Harewood House, Newton Abbot, 1974, 69, 86; Beard, Decorative Plasterwork, cit., 241.

147 Ashington, Northumberland Museum and Archives, 2DE, 23/3/1.

148 London, V&A Museum, FID, red boxes 1 and 3.

149 Russell, in Country Life, loc. cit.

150 Terry Friedman, Engrav’d Cards . . . of Trades-Men . . . in the County of Yorkshire . . . [exhibition catalogue], Leeds, 1976, 21.

151 Julia King, ‘An Ambassador’s House in Essex’, Georgian Group Journal, VII, 1997, 122.

152 Scone, Bundle 974/1.

153 Julia King, loc. cit.

154 Ashington, Northumberland Museum and Archives, 2DE, 23/3/1.

155 Alistair Rowan, Designs for Castles and Country Villas by Robert and James Adam, Oxford, 1985, pls 13, 16, 35, 38, 39, 44, 45, 48, 49, 60 and 61.

156 Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3/3.

157 Alan Tait, Robert Adam: Drawings and Imagination, Cambridge, 1993, 88–89. I am indebted to Dr Frances Sands for information about Nasmith’s drawings in the Adam collection; and to Mr Colin Thom for the information that payments to Nasmith in Robert Adam’s account at Drummonds’ Bank run from 1764 (when the account opened) to 1770 (when they stop). Most of the draughtsmen were paid £40–£60 per annum; Nasmith was paid £1,250 between August and October 1768 in five separate payments; in 1769 he was paid £830. Mr Thom thus concludes that Nasmith was more than just a draughtsman, and may have been a foreman or clerk of works on several of the Adams’ important commissions.

158 Francis Russell, John, 3rd Earl of Bute Patron and Collector, London, 2004, 163–65 and 175–76.

159 Julia King, loc. cit.

160 One of Nasmith’s executors may also have been Scottish; he was named as Patrick Douglas ‘of Currill and in Ayrshire [sic]’; and Nasmith’s daughter, Catherine, was married to Hugh Douglas of Loudon County, Virginia [TNA, PROB 11/1238].

161 TNA, PROB 11/1238.

162 At Luton and Highcliffe Nasmith worked for the 3rd Earl of Bute, who had sold Kenwood to the 1st Lord Mansfield in 1754 [John Summerson, The Iveagh Bequest Kenwood A Short Account of its History and Architecture, London, 1967, 8]. So Lord Mansfield could have had his appraisal of Nasmith confirmed by Lord Bute, who was, like both the 1st and 2nd Earls of Mansfield, a Scottish peer absorbed into British government (in fact the supreme example). Lord Bute remained a correspondent of Lord Mansfield’s for the rest of his life, but he died in March 1792; so his endorsement of Nasmith would have had to be made before the 2nd Lord Mansfield inherited Kenwood. The builder of Ray House, Sir James Wright, was also a friend of Lord and Lady Bute, and a diplomat as well [Julia King, op. cit., 118–21].

163 TNA, PROB 11/1238. Another was Charles Runnington, Serjeant-at-Law; when Runnington was created Serjeant on 26 November 1787 he named the Duke of Portland and William Adam as the two ‘patrons’ which legal custom required [JH Baker, The Order of Serjeants at Law, London, Selden Society, 1984, 220, 460]. So Runnington was evidently also within the Adam family circle.

164 TNA, PROB 11/1238.

165 Dr Frances Sands tells me that she has tentatively attributed 133 drawings within the Adam Collection at Sir John Soane’s Museum to either Robert Nasmith or William Hamilton, although she finds it difficult to distinguish between them. RICHARD HEWLINGS 78 English Heritage Historical Review, Volume 8, 2013 03-hewlings - Press

166 Russell, Earl of Bute, cit., pls 66 and 75.

167 Russell, Earl of Bute, cit., 175–76.

168 Colvin, op. cit., 737.

169 Howard Colvin, Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600–1840, New Haven and London, 1995, 695. Colvin omitted this information from the 2008 edition.

170 Scone, Box 112/2, loose paper, signed by Lord Mansfield, 7 August 1793.

171 Scone, Bundle 974/8.

172 Scone, Bundle 974/7.

173 Scone, Bundle 974/25 and 26.

174 Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3/2.

175 Howard Colvin, Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600–1840, New Haven and London, 2008, 737.

176 Scone, Box 112/2, p. 367.

177 Scone, Bundle 1385.

178 Scone, Bundle 578.

179 Scone, Bundle 974/8.

180 Scone, Bundle 974/13 and 20–98. At least 93 of these certificates are known, naming 25 tradesmen, and there may be more to be found covering the period from October 1796.

181 London, Messrs C Hoare and Co. Saunders’s payments are listed in Appendix B. I am grateful to Mrs Pamela Hunter, archivist at Messrs Hoare, for her assistance with these.

182 Scone, Bundle 974/2.

183 Scone, Bundle 1385.

184 Colvin, 2008, cit., 903.

185 John Ingamells, A Dictionary of British and Irish Travellers in Italy 1701–1800, New Haven and London, 1997, 841.

186 The entry given in Algernon Graves, The Royal Academy of Arts: A Complete Catalogue of Contributors and their Work from its Foundation in 1769 to 1904, London, 1905, IV, gives Saunders’s address in 1781 inaccurately, and confuses him with Soane’s pupil, John Sanders in 1789. It also adds to George Saunders’s entry a drawing exhibited by John Sanders in 1786, a year in which George Saunders did not exhibit [London, Royal Academy of Arts, Library, exhibition catalogues, 1781–1791].

187 Walker, op. cit., 211.

188 Scone, Bundle 974/1. The bill which Saunders submitted was for a larger sum, but £101 of it was for work which appears to have been supervised by someone else.

189 Scone, Bundle 1203/15.

190 Dorothy Stroud, Humphry Repton, London, 1962, 40–41; Stephen Daniels, Humphry Repton: Landscape Gardening and the Geography of Georgian England, New Haven and London, 1999, 166–70.

191 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 87r. Carswell, op. cit., 25, refers to Hunter as the steward, perhaps following Brewer, op. cit., 178, who wrote: ‘the leading improvements in these grounds have been effected by Mr. Hunter, who resides on this estate as land-steward to the Earl of Mansfield, and who was likewise retained as steward by the Lord Chief Justice’. But an undated annotation by the 3rd Earl on proposals made in August 1793 for the new road, describes Hunter as ‘56 years gardener at Kenwood’ [Scone, Box 74, Bundle 3/8]. This is supported by Hunter’s note of men working in the garden on 1 July 1816 [Scone, Box 108, Bundle 3/3], his letter about insuring garden stoves on the same day [Scone, Box 108, Bundle 6], and his account of trees blown down on 7 March 1820 [Scone, Box 108, Bundle 10]. Instead Thomas Watson was the steward, at least in 1830 [Scone, Bundle 1198]; and in 1845 J Watson was described as the land steward of the Middlesex, Cheshire and Derbyshire estates [Scone, Bundle 1089/8].

192 Colvin, 2008, 904.

193 Box 112/2, fo. 16v.

194 Scone, Bundle 258/5/c. The bundle does not appear to be dated, but Carswell, op. cit., 24, describes what must be this plan, without a reference; and, for reasons which he does not give, dates it to ‘2/3 July 1794’. The omission of the stables, begun in mid-1794, supports Carswell’s dates. The plan certainly predates July 1796, as it shows the Dairy without the quadrant walls which had been built by that date: see below for these dates. Nor does it show the Farm, begun between April and July of that year.

195 Rosalind Mitchison, ‘The old Board of Agriculture (1793–1822)’, English Historical Review, LXXIV, January 1959, 41–69; David R Fisher, ‘Sinclair, Sir John, 1st. Bt. (1754–1835) of Ulbster and Thurso Castle, Caithness’, in RG Thorne (ed.), The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1790–1820, V, London, 1986, 179–86; GS Mitchell, A Handbook of Land Drainage, Land Agents’ Record, London, 1900, chapter 4 (I am grateful to Mr Tony Kitto for bringing the latter to my attention); Horn, loc. cit., for the rivalry between Marshall and Young..

196 HS Torrens, ‘Elkington, Joseph (bap.1740, d.1806)’, ODNB, XVIII, 2004, 134–35.

197 James Johnstone, An Account of the Most Approved Mode of Draining Land According to the System Practised by Mr Joseph Elkington, Edinburgh, 1797, 110–11. Elkington and Townley’s improvements at Towneley Hall are described in Sarah Law, Archaeological Report on Towneley Hall, Lancashire, up to 1902, unpublished report, 1985, citing documents in Preston, Lancashire Record Office, DDTO, Boxes J and UU. I am grateful to Dr Law for sending me a copy of the latter.

198 BM, Townley Papers, TY7/1064.

199 Ibid., TY 7/43, Joseph Elkington junior, Birmingham, to Charles Townley, Towneley, 19 November 1801.

200 W John and Kit Smith, An Architectural History of Towneley Hall, Burnley, Nelson, 2004, 78–79.

201 Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, Taste and the Antique, New Haven and London, 1981, 68; BF Cook, The Townley Marbles, London, 1985, passim; Gerard Vaughan, ‘The collecting of classical antiquities in England in the eighteenth century: a study of Charles Townley and his circle’, DPhil, University of Oxford, 1988, passim; BF Cook, ‘Townley, Charles (1737–1805)’, in ODNB, LV, 115–17; Tony Kitto, ‘The Celebrated Connoisseur: Charles Townley, 1737–1805’, Minerva, May/June 2005, 13–15; Clare Hornsby and Jonathan Yarker, in Ilaria Bignamini, Digging and Dealing in Eighteenth-Century Rome, New Haven and London, 2010, 326–31.

202 BM, Townley Papers, TY7/1611.

203 Dan Cruickshank, ‘Queen Anne’s Gate’, Georgian Group Journal, II, 1992, 56–67.

204 Colvin, 2008, op. cit., 143; Peter Meadows, ‘Drawn to Entice’, Country Life, CLXXXII, 28 April 1988, 130, fig. 5. The stable plan is the ‘triangular’ stable mentioned in Smith and Smith, op. cit., 79–81, but it is not the plan illustrated at fig. 71 therein; it is actually Towneley Hall, doma 0664, unpublished. I am indebted to Mr Tony Kitto for correcting this misinformation on my behalf.

205 BM, Archives, OP2, vol. 2, 794.

206 Marjorie Caygill and Christopher Date, Building the British Museum, London, 1999, 17–19.

207 BM, Townley Papers, TY 7/2228.

208 BM, Archives, OP 2, vol. 2, 768.

209 Caygill and Date, op. cit., 17.

210 BM, Townley Papers, TY 7/26c.

211 BM, Archives, OP 2, vol. 2, 751.

212 BM, Townley Papers, TY 7/26a and b. All three applications were sent to Townley in person. Atkinson and Chawner note that the surveyorship had been vacated by the death of Mr Gorham, although Saunders evidently believed that the Surveyor had resigned. This must have been John Gorham (1710–1801), whose career is noted in Colvin, 2008, cit., 437, although Colvin was evidently unaware that Gorham held this post.

213 BM, Townley Papers, TY 7/26c.

214 Colvin, 2008, cit., 904; Bignamini, op. cit., 249–51; Ingamells, op. cit., 176–77; Francis Russell, ‘A distinguished generation: the Cawdor Collection’, Country Life, CLXXV, 14 June 1984, 1746–48. Campbell, created Lord Cawdor in 1796, owned Cawdor Castle, Nairnshire, and Stackpole Court, Pembrokeshire; he too was interested in drainage and improved Castlemartin Corse on his Pembrokeshire property [RG Thorne (ed.), The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1790–1820, III, London, 1986, 372–73]. I am grateful to Prof Gerard Vaughan for the information that Townley and Campbell were friends.

215 GE Fussell, ‘William Marshall’, Journal of the Land Agents’ Society, LII, 1953, 485–90; Horn, op. cit., 27; GE Mingay, ‘Marshall, William (1745–1818)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, XXXVI, 2004, 880–81.

216 Horn, op. cit., 29.

217 Horn, op. cit., 30.

218 Scone, vol. 231 [unpaginated], 19 October 1795.

219 Scone, Bundle 1420, packet inscribed ‘Mr Marshalls Observations on the Kenwood Estate 1797 . . . L.GM May 21st 1798’.

220 Scone, Bundles 1239 and 1247.

221 Colvin, 2008, cit., 218, records Cantwell as an architect, although he does not cite evidence of any building designed by him.

222 Ibid., 554–56.

223 Walker, op. cit., 211.

224 Cornforth, op. cit., 72. THE DAIRY AT KENWOOD English Heritage Historical Review, Volume 8, 2013 79 03-hewlings - Press

225 Scone, Bundle 1203/c/17.

226 Colvin, 2008, cit., 80–83. Atkinson’s design for Longwood, Napoleon’s house, prefabricated by the Board of Ordnance at the Tower of London, and shipped out to St Helena, may be added to the list of commissions given by Colvin [Martin Levy, ‘Napoleon in Exile’, Furniture History, XXXIV, 1998].

227 Colvin, 2008, cit., 80.

228 Scone, Bundle 975/3.

229 Cornforth, loc. cit. Atkinson’s bill for drawings for Scone is in Scone, Bundle 975/5.

230 Colvin, 2008, cit., 80; Scone, Bundle 578; Scone, Bundle 2341, especially (1) and (3–7).

231 Scone, Bundle 975/4.

232 Scone, Bundle 975/7. For architects as house agents, see Richard Garnier, ‘Grafton Street, Mayfair’, Georgian Group Journal, XIII, 2003, 250; ibid., ‘Speculative Housing in 1750s London’, Georgian Group Journal, XII, 2002, 182; and Richard Hewlings, ‘11 Downing Street: John Soane’s Work for John Eliot (1797–1805)’, Transactions of the Ancient Monuments Society, XXXIX, 1995, 51–71.

233 Scone, Bundle 975/3.

234 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 24.

235 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 17.

236 Scone, vol. 205, fos 21, 86; Scone, vol. 206, 19, 87; Scone, vol. 207, fos 18, 52. HG Atkinson was Henry George, the younger of two sons [Colvin, 2008, cit., 80].

237 Colvin, 2008, cit., 80.

238 Cornforth, op. cit., 74.

239 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 140.

240 As is suggested below, under Later History.

241 Scone, Bundle 1198, John Marshall, 31 Soho Square, to Thomas Watson, 12 February 1830, ‘For whatever repairs that may be actually necessary to be done to the House in Portland Place I have had instructions to refer you to Mr Blore Architect No. 62 Welbeck Street as he has received orders to that effect’.

242 Scone, Bundle 1203, part 2, estate letters c.1837–43, Salvin at Elmhurst, Finchley, to Mansfield, 21 October 1839.

243 Jill Allibone, Anthony Salvin Pioneer of Gothic Revival Architecture 1799–1881, Columbia (Missouri), 1987, 62, 149.

244 Scone, Bundle 258/5/c. Carswell, op. cit., 24, describes what must be this plan, without a reference; and, for reasons which he does not give, dates it more precisely to ‘2/3 July 1794’.

245 The carpenter agreed prices for the farm in February 1796 [Scone, Bundle 974/2], and the architect billed for setting it out in April [Scone, Bundle 1203].

246 The carpenter’s agreement for the stables was signed in March 1795, and they may have been complete by January 1796, when arrangements were made for pulling down the old stable [Scone, Bundle 974/3].

247 Ground was removed ‘to prepare for the foundations of the New Offices’ in June 1793 [Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 15r], and ‘ye first stone’ was laid on 30 July [ibid., fo. 17r].

248 Scone, Box 112/1, fo. 68v.

249 Scone, Bundle 974/61.

250 Scone, Bundle 1247.

251 Scone, Bundle 1203/18.

252 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 71v. An additional 6d. is shown in this account.

253 Scone, Bundle 1203/23.

254 Scone, Bundle 974/9/c.

255 Scone, Bundle 1203/21/a.

256 Scone, Bundle 1203/4.

257 Scone, Bundle 1203/3.

258 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 71v.

259 Scone, Bundle 1203/22/a; Scone, Bundle 1203/24/a.

260 Scone, Bundle 1203/17/a.

261 Rotha Mary Clay, Julius Caesar Ibbetson, London, 1948, 58. Lady Mansfield had commissioned a seal of a favourite cow from William Birch, the enamel painter, in 1796 [Kenneth Garlick and A Macintyre (eds), The Diary of Joseph Farington, II, New Haven and London, 1978, 598], and some time in that year Ibbetson made a watercolour of cattle inscribed ‘ad nat. delt. Kenwood 1796’ [Finest Prospects, cit., 122]. It is therefore likely that Ibbetson’s painting bears the date of the year following his visit.

262 Scone, Bundle 1203/22/c; Bundle 1203/24/a.

263 Scone, Bundle 974/9/c.

264 Scone, Bundle 1203/22/e.

265 Oxford Archaeological Unit, Draft Interim Report, Dairy at Kenwood House, March 1998, 3–4. The investigation was undertaken by Ms Kate Newell.

266 Scone, Bundle 974/9/a.

267 Scone, Bundle 974/9/b.

268 Scone, Bundle 974/9/c.

269 Scone, Bundle 1203/21/d.

270 Scone, Bundle 974/9/d.

271 Scone, Bundle 1203/20.

272 Scone, Bundle 974/9/d.

273 Scone, Bundle 1203/24/b.

274 Scone, Bundle 1203/1/a.

275 Brewer, op. cit., X, 179.

276 Frederick Prickett, The History and Antiquities of Highgate, Middlesex, London, 1842, 65.

277 BM, Prints and Drawings, Crace Plans, Portfolio XXXVI, 97. Although unsigned, this plan is likely to be by the Highgate land surveyor John Prickett, who signed another plan in the same collection [ibid., Crace Plans, Portfolio XXXVI, 96]; the latter has an annotation in a (presumably) later hand, ‘Plan of the Grounds about Kenwood house taken in 1793 — by Pritchard [sic]’. The 1793 plan is likely to be one of the plans recorded in Lord Mansfield’s account book as follows: ‘1793 Prickett reducing large Plan of part of Kenwood lands and making a fair copy 2. 2. 0. Prickett taking levels and making three Plans by Reptons order and one by Saunders 13. 2. 6 Scone, [Box 112/2, fo. 1r]’.

278 It is suggested above (at note 261) that Ibbetson’s painting is dated one year later than his visit.

279 ‘Stone Flagged’ paths, traversing this space from north to south and from west to centre, are shown on a London County Council survey plan of 1929 [Oxford Archaeological Unit, op. cit., fig. 3]; and payments to paviours are recorded above, under The Construction of the Dairy. But ‘no evidence for the three axial paths were seen [sic]’ during excavation in February–March 1998 [Oxford Archaeological Unit, op. cit., 50].

280 Oxford Archaeological Unit, op. cit., 51–52, figs 12 and 15. They were replaced with gravel in 2013.

281 Swindon, English Heritage Archive, AS 605–7; reproduced in Oxford Archeological Unit, op. cit., pls 1–3.

282 Finest Prospects, loc. cit. It is shown above, under The Construction of the Dairy, that, although dated ‘1797’, the painting illustrates the Dairy in the state that it was until 1796.

283 Scone, Bundle 1247.

284 Brewer, op. cit., 179.

285 Scone, Bundle 1247.

286 They are below the milk pans, rather than above them, and they are so close to the grates that they may join the waste pipes below ground.

287 Scone, Bundle 1247.

288 Scone, Bundle 1203/18.

289 Scone, Bundle 1247.

290 Idem.

291 Alun Graves (Ceramic and Glass Department, V&A Museum, London), Tiles in the Dairy at Kenwood House, 11 July 1997.

292 John Martin Robinson, Georgian Model Farms, Oxford, 1983, 96–97.

293 Alison Kelly, Decorative Wedgwood in Architecture and Interiors, London, 1965, 119, 124.

294 Scone, Bundle 1247.

295 Idem.

296 Scone, vol. 201, fo. 115.

297 Scone, Bundle 1203/16b, ‘Received . . . for James Keir + Co. Jas. Cruikshanks’.

298 Scone, Bundle 974/71.

299 Bundle 974/13. £163 9s. 3Jd. is entered in the accounts under November 1795.

300 Scone, Box 112/2, fo. 40r.

301 Scone, Bundle 1203/16a.

302 Scone, vol. 201, fo. 134.

303 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 140.

304 Jane Davies Conservation, Architectural Paint Research: Kenwood House, Dairy Complex, May 2012, 6.

305 Scone, Bundle 1205/C/19 and 20.

306 Scone, Bundle 1205/C/21.

307 Scone, Bundle 1063.

308 Scone, vol. 204, fo. 121.

309 Scone, Bundle 975.

310 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 62. RICHARD HEWLINGS 80 English Heritage Historical Review, Volume 8, 2013 03-hewlings - Press

311 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 57.

312 Scone, Bundle 1063/A7.

313 Scone, vol. 207, fo. 52.

314 Scone, vol. 207, fo. 109.

315 Scone, Bundle 1205/C/24.

316 Scone, Bundle 1063/A9.

317 Scone, vol. 210, unpaginated.

318 Scone, Bundle 1089.

319 Scone, Bundle 1205/C/16–18. 16 is the undated Dairy bill; 17 is dated between 14 November 1803 and 14 February 1804; and 18 is dated only ‘1803’.

320 Jane Davies Conservation, op. cit., 34.

321 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

322 Scone, Bundle 1063.

323 Scone, Bundle 975/1.

324 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

325 Scone, vol. 210, unpaginated.

326 Scone, Bundle 1203/C/29.

327 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 58.

328 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 133.

329 Scone, vol. 206, fo. 56.

330 Scone, vol. 206, fo. 121.

331 Scone, vol. 206, fo. 126.

332 Scone, vol. 210, unpaginated.

333 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

334 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

335 Scone, Bundle 908.

336 Scone, Bundle 975.

337 Brewer, op. cit., 176.

338 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 61.

339 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 62.

340 Scone, vol. 202. fo. 130.

341 Scone, vol. 202, fo. 133.

342 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 61.

343 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 138.

344 Scone, vol. 203, fo. 138.

345 Scone, vol. 204, fo. 51.

346 Scone, vol. 204, fo. 113.

347 Scone, vol. 204, fo. 121.

348 Scone, vol. 205, fo. 63.

349 Scone, vol. 205, fo. 117.

350 Scone, vol. 205, fo. 119.

351 Scone, vol. 206, fo. 49.

352 Scone, vol. 206, fo. 54.

353 Scone, vol. 208, fo. 54.

354 Scone, vol. 208, fo. 76.

355 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

356 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

357 Scone, vol. 209, unpaginated.

358 Scone, vol. 210, unpaginated

359 Scone, vol. 210, unpaginated.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Richard Hewlings

Richard Hewlings is a Historian in the Properties Presentation Department of English Heritage, and an Honorary Visiting Fellow of the University of York. He was editor of The Georgian Group Journal from 1996 to 2008.