Advanced search
Publication Cover
Inhalation Toxicology
International Forum for Respiratory Research
Volume 15, 2003 - Issue 9
Submit an article Journal homepage
68
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Why Are Lung Cancer Rate Trends So Different in the United States and United Kingdom?

Pages 909-949 | Published online: 01 Oct 2008

  • Adams, P. I. 1976. Changes in personal smoking habits brought about by changes in cigarette smoke yield. In Proceedings of the 6th International Tobacco Scientific Congress, Tokyo, November 14-20, 7976, pp. 102-108.
  • Adlkofer, F., Scherer, G., Biber, A., Heller, W.-D., Lee, P. N., and Schievelbein, H. 1989. Consistency of nicotine intake in smokers of cigarettes with varying nicotine yields. In Nicotine, smoking, and the low tar programme, Proceedings of a symposium "Nicotine, smoking, and the low tar programme." London, 18-20 November 1986, eds. N. WaId, and P. Froggatt, pp. 116-130. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Ahijevych, K., Gillespie, J., Demirci, M., and Jagadeesh, J. 1996. Menthol and nonmenthol cigarettes and smoke exposure in black and white women. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 53:355-360.
  • Alavanja, M. C. R., Brown, C. C., Swanson, C., and Brownson, R. C. 1993. Saturated fat intake and lung cancer risk among nonsmoking women in Missouri. J. Natl. Cancer lnst. 85:1906-1916.
  • Alderson, M. 1981. International mortality statistics. London: Macmillan Press.
  • Alderson, M. R., Lee, P. N., and Wang, R. 1985. Risks of lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, ischaemic heart disease, and stroke in relation to type of cigarette smoked. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 39:286-293.
  • Alford, B. W. E. 1973. W. D. & H. O. Wills and the development of the U.K. tobacco industry 1786-1965. London: Methuen.
  • Armitage, P., and Doll, R. 1954. The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenesis. Br. J. Cancer 8:1-12.
  • Armitage, A. K., Alexander, J., Hopkins, R., and Ward, C. 1988. Evaluation of a low to middle tarJ medium nicotine cigarette designed to maintain nicotine delivery to the smoker. Psychopharmacology 96:447-453.
  • Axelson, O. 1991. Occupational and environmental exposures to radon: cancer risks. Annu. Rev. Public Health 12:235-255.
  • Barker, D. J. P., and Osmond, C. 1986. Childhood respiratory infection and adult chronic bronchitis in England and Wales. Br. Med. J. 293:1271-1275.
  • Berenblum, I. 1982. Sequential aspects of chemical carcinogenesis. In Cancer: A comprehensive trea-tise, ed. F. F. Becker, pp. 451-484. New York: Plenum Press.
  • Bridges, R. B., Humble, J. W., Turbek, J. A., and Rehm, S. R. 1986. Smoking history, cigarette yield and smoking behavior as determinants of smoke exposure. Eur. J. Respir. Dis. 69(suppl. 146):129-137.
  • Bridges, R. B., Combs, J. C., Humble, J. W., Turbek, J. A., Rehm, S. R., and Haley, N. J. 1990. Puffing topography as a determinant of smoke exposure. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 37:29-39.
  • Brown, C. C., and Chu, K. C. 1983. A new method for the analysis of cohort studies: implications of the multistage theory of carcinogenesis applied to occupational arsenic exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 50:293-308.
  • Brown, C. C., and Chu, K. C. 1987. Use of multistage models to infer stage affected by carcinogenic exposure: example of lung cancer and cigarette smoking. J. Chron. Dis. 40(suppl. 2):171S-179S.
  • Brownson, R. C., and Alavanja, M. C. R. 2000. Previous lung disease and lung cancer risk among women (United States). Cancer Causes Control 11:853-858.
  • Burns, D. M., Lee, L., Shen, L. Z., Gilpin, E., Tolley, H. D., Vaughn, J., and Shanks, T. G. 1997. Cigarette smoking behavior in the United States. In Changes in cigarette-related disease risks and their implications for prevention and control, eds. D. Burns, L. Garfinkel, and J. M. Samet, pp. 13-112. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph 8 (NIH Publication No. 97-4213.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD.
  • Carmines, E. L. 2002. Evaluation of the potential effects of ingredients added to cigarettes. Part 1: Cigarette design, testing approach, and review of results. Food Chem. Toxicol. 40:77-91.
  • Carriot, F., and Sasco, A. J. 2000. Cannabis et cancer [Cannabis and cancer]. Rev. Epidémiol. Santé Publ. 48:473-483.
  • Comer, A. K., and Creighton, D. E. 1978. The effect of experimental conditions on smoking behaviour. In Smoking behaviour. Physiological and psychological influences, ed. R. E. Thornton, pp. 76-86. London: Churchill Livingston.
  • Cox, B. D., Blaxter, M., Buckle, A. L. J., Fenner, N. P., Golding, J. F., Gore, M., Huppert, F. A., Nickson, J., Roth, M., Stark, J., Wadsworth, M. E. J., and Whichelow, M. 1987. The health and lifestyle survey. Preliminary report of a nationwide survey of the physical and mental health, attitudes and lifestyle of a random sample of 9,003 British adults. London: Health Promotion Research Trust.
  • Creighton, D. E., and Lewis, P. H. 1978. The effect of different cigarettes on human smoking patterns. In Smoking behaviour. Physiological and psychological influences, ed. R. E. Thornton, pp. 289-300. London: Churchill Livingstone.
  • Darby, S., Whitley, E., Silcocks, P., Thakrar, B., Green, M., Lomas, P., Miles, J., Reeves, G., Fearn, T., and Doll, R. 1998. Risk of lung cancer associated with residential radon exposure in south-west England: A case-control study. Br. J. Cancer 78:394-408.
  • Day, N. E., and Brown, C. C. 1980. Multistage models and primary prevention of cancer. JNCl 64:977-989.
  • Djordjevic, M. V., Hoffmann, D., Thompson, S., and Stellman, S. D. 1998. Smoking behavior and exposure to select toxic agents among smokers of low- and medium-yield cigarettes. In CORESTA Congress Proceedings, CORESTA Congress, Brighton, England, October 11-15, 1998, pp. 186-195.
  • Doll, R. 1971. The age distribution of cancer: Implications for models of carcinogenesis. J. R. Stat. Soc. A13:133-166.
  • Doll, R., and Peto, R. 1978. Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: Dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong non-smokers. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 32:303-313.
  • Doll, R., and Peto, R. 1981. The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. JNCI 66:1193-1308.
  • Doll, R., Hill, A. B., Gray, P. G., and Parr, E. A. 1959. Lung cancer mortality and the length of cigarette ends: An international comparison. Br. Med. J. i:322-325.
  • Doll, R., Peto, R., Wheatley, K., Gray, R., and Sutherland, I. 1994. Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years' observations on male British doctors. Br. Med. J. 309:901-911.
  • Fisher, J. C., and Hollomon, J. H. 1951. A hypothesis for the origin of cancer foci. Cancer September: 916-918.
  • Forey, B., and Lee, P. 2002. Estimation of sex-specific smoking statistics by standardized age groups and time periods. Supplement 1 to International smoking statistics, a collection of historical data from 30 economically developed countries (2nd ed.). Sutton, Surrey: P. N. Lee Statistics and Computing Ltd. www.pnlee.demon.co.uk
  • Forey, B., Hamling, J., Lee, P., and WaId, N., eds. 2002. International smoking statistics. A collection of historical data from 30 economically developed countries, 2nd ed. London and Oxford: Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine and Oxford University Press.
  • Freedman, D. A., and Navidi, W. C. 1990. Ex-smokers and the multistage model for lung cancer. Epidemiology 1:21-29.
  • Froggatt, P., and WaId, N. J. 1989. The role of nicotine in the tar reduction programme. In Nicotine, smoking, and the low tar programme. Proceedings of a symposium 'Nicotine, smoking, and the low tar programme.' London, 18-20 November 1986, eds. N. WaId and P. Froggatt, pp. 229-235. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Gaffhey, M., and Altshuler, B. 1988. Examination of the role of cigarette smoke in lung carcinogenesis using multistage models. JNCI 80:925-931.
  • Garfinkel, L., and Silverberg, E. 1990. Lung cancer and smoking trends in the United States over the past 25 years. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 609:146-158.
  • Garten, S., and Falkner, R. V. 2001. Menthol and tobacco smoking, www.goodhealth.freeservers.comJ MethTobaccolntro. htmI
  • Gaworski, C. L., Dozier, M. M., Heck, J. D., Gerhart, J. M., Rajendran, N., David, R. M., Brennecke, L. H., and Morrissey, R. 1998. Toxicologie evaluation of flavor ingredients added to cigarette tobacco: 13-Week inhalation exposures in rats, lnhal. Toxicol. 10:357-381.
  • Guyatt, A. R., Kirkham, A. J. T., Baldry, A. G., Dixon, M., and Gumming, G. 1989. How does puffing behavior alter during the smoking of a single cigarette? Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 33:189-195.
  • Halpern, M. T., Gillespie, B. W., and Warner, K. E. 1993. Patterns of absolute risk of lung cancer mortality in former smokers. JNCI 85:457-464.
  • Hammond, E. C. 1958. Lung cancer death rates in England and Wales compared with those in the USA. Br. Med. J. ii:649-654.
  • Harris, J. E. 1983. Cigarette smoking among successive birth cohorts of men and women in the United States during 1900-80. JNCI 71:473-479.
  • Hemminki, K., and Pershagen, G. 1994. Cancer risk of air pollution: epidemiological evidence. Environ. Health Perspect 102(suppl. 4):187-192.
  • Herning, R. J., Jones, R. T., Bachman, J., and Mines, A. H. 1981. Puff volume increases when low-nicotine cigarettes are smoked. Br. Med. J. 283:187-189.
  • Hsairi, M., Achour, N., Zouari, B., Ben Romdhane, H., Achour, A., Maalej, M., and Nacef, T. 1993. Facteurs étiologiques du cancer bronchique primitif en Tunisie [Etiologic factors of bronchic carcinoma]. Tunis. Med. 71:265-268.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1974. Some aromatic amines, hydrazine and related substances, N-nitroso compounds and miscellaneous alkylating agents. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risk Chem. Man 4.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2002. Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity to humans. Lyon: IARC. http://193.51.164.11/monoeval/crthall.html
  • Jemal, A., Chu, K. C., and Tarone, R. E. 2001. Recent trends in lung cancer mortality in the United States.JNCI 93:277-283.
  • Kahn, H. A. 1966. The Dorn study of smoking and mortality among U.S. veterans: report on eight and one-half years of observation. In Epidemiological approaches to the study of cancer and other chronic diseases, ed. W. Haenszel, pp. 1-125. National Cancer Institute Monograph 19. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Cancer Institute.
  • Katsouyanni, K., and Pershagen, G. 1997. Ambient air pollution exposure and cancer. Cancer Causes Control 8:284-291.
  • Lahmeyer, J. 2002. Population statistics. Werkgroep Seriële Publicaties (WESP) [Working Alliance on Serial Publications, WASP]. www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstal/populhome.html
  • Lee, P. N. 1974. Final analysis. Experiment 7.7.7.9. The effect of stopping painting. Sutton, Surrey: P. N. Lee Statistics and Computing Ltd. www.pnlee.demon.co.uk
  • Lee, P. N. 1994. Comparison of autopsy, clinical and death certificate diagnosis with particular reference to lung cancer. A review of the published data. APMIS 102(suppl. 45):1-42. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
  • Lee, P. N. 1995. Studying the relationship of smoking to lung cancer using the multistage model ofcarcinogenesis. A review. Sutton, Surrey: P. N. Lee Statistics and Computing Ltd. www.pnlee.demon. co.uk
  • Lee, P. N. 2001a. Lung cancer and type of cigarette smoked, lnhal. Toxicol. 13:951-976.
  • Lee, P. N. 2001 b. Relation between exposure to asbestos and smoking jointly and the risk of lung cancer. Oceup. Environ. Med. 58:145-153.
  • Lee, P. N., and Forey, B. A. 1996. Trends in cigarette consumption cannot fully explain trends in US lung cancer rates (Abstract). Presented at the 15th Annual Conference on Applied Statistics in Ireland (CASI), Killarney, March 29th-31 st 1995. Statistician 45:448.
  • Lee, P. N., and Forey, B. A. 1998. Trends in cigarette consumption cannot fully explain trends in British lung cancer rates.;. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 52:82-92.
  • Lee, P. N., and O'Neill, J. A. 1971. The effect both of time and dose applied on tumour incidence rats in benzopyrene skin painting experiments. Br. J. Cancer 25:759-770.
  • Lee, P. N., Fry, J. S., and Forey, B. A. 1990. Trends in lung cancer, chronic obstructive lung disease, and emphysema death rates for England and Wales 1941-85 and their relation to trends in cigarette smoking. Thorax 45:657-665.
  • Liddell, F. D. K. 2001. The interaction of asbestos and smoking in lung cancer. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 45:341-356.
  • Lijinsky, W. 1993. Life-span and cancer: the induction time of tumors in diverse animal species treated with nitrosodiethylamine. Carcinogenesis 14:2373-2375.
  • Lilienfeld, D. E., Mandel, J. S., Coin, P., and Schuman, L. M. 1988. Projection of asbestos related diseases in the United States, 1985-2009,1. Cancer. Br. J. Ind. Med. 45:283-291.
  • Lubin, J. H., and Boice, J. D., Jr. 1989. Estimating Rn-induced lung cancer in the United States. Health Phys. 57:417-427.
  • Lubin, J. H., Blot, W. J., Berrino, F., Flamant, R., Gillis, C. R., Kunze, M., Schmähl, D., and Visco, G. 1984. Modifying risk of developing lung cancer by changing habits of cigarette smoking. Br. Med. J.288:1953-1956.
  • Mayne, S. T., Buenconsejo, J., and Janerich, D. T. 1999. Previous lung disease and risk of lung cancer among men and women nonsmokers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 149:13-20.
  • Moody, P. M. 1984. Human smoking patterns and smoke deliveries. Int. J. Addict 19:431-439.
  • National Cancer Institute with Shopland, D. R., Burns, D. M., Benowitz, N. L., and Amacher, R. H., eds. 2001. Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute.
  • Neuberger, J. S., and Gesell, T. F. 2002. Residential radon exposure and lung cancer: Risk in nonsmokers. Health Phys. 83:1-18.
  • Nordling, C. 0.1952. A new theory on the cancer-inducing mechanism. Br. J. Cancer 1:68-72.
  • Page, S. D. 1993. The science and policy of EPA's radon program. Health Phys. Soc. Newslett. 11:1, 3-4.
  • Peedin, G. F. 1999. Production practices: flue-cured tobacco. In Tobacco: Production, chemistry and technology, eds. D. L. Davis and M. T. Nielsen, pp. 104-142. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
  • Peedin, G. F., and Priest, J. A. 2002. In Flue-cured tobacco information, pp. 72-91. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.
  • Peele, D. M., Riddick, M. G., Edwards, M. E., Gentry, J. S., and Nestor, T. B. 2001. Formation of tobaccospecific nitrosamines in flue-cured tobacco. In 55th Tobacco Science Research Conference, September 10, 2001, pp. 3-12.
  • Pershagen, G. 1990. Air pollution and cancer. In Complex mixtures and cancer risk, eds. H. Vainio, M. Sorsa, and A. J. McMichael, pp. 240-251. IARC Monogr. volume 104. Lyon, France: IARC.
  • Peto, J. 1984. Early- and late-stage carcinogenesis in mouse skin and in man. In Models, mechanisms and etiology of tumour promotion, Proceedings of a symposium organised by the Hungarian Cancer Society and the IARC held in Budapest, 16-18 May 83, eds. M. Börzsönyi, N. E. Day, K. Lapis, and H. Yamasaki, pp. 359-371. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
  • Peto, R., Roe, F. J. C., Lee, P. N., Levy, L., and Clack, J. 1975. Cancer and ageing in mice and men. Br. I. Cancer 32:411-426.
  • Peto, J., Henderson, B. E., and Pike, M. C. 1981. Trends in mesothelioma incidence in the United States and the forecast epidemic due to asbestos exposure during World War II. In Quantification of occupational cancer. Banbury Report 9, eds. M. Schneiderman and J. Peto, pp. 51-69. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
  • Peto, R., Parish, S. E., and Gray, R. G. 1985. There is no such thing as ageing, and cancer is not related to it. In Age-related factors in carcinogenesis, eds. A. Likhachev, V. Anisimov, and R. Montesano, pp. 43-53. IARC Scientific Publications No. 58. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
  • Rawbone, R. G. 1984. Switching to low tar cigarettes: Are the tar league tables relevant? Thorax 39: 657-662.
  • Reeves, N., and Dixon, M. 1995. The measurement of human smoking behaviour and the influence of mainstream smoke deliveries on changes in behavioural parameters. Beitr. Tabakforsch. Int. 16:134.
  • Rodgman, A. 2002. Some studies of the effects of additives on cigarette mainstream smoke properties. 1. Flavorants. Beitr. Tabakforsch. 20:83-103.
  • Royal College of Physicians. 1977. Smoking or health. The third report from the Royal College of Physicians of London. London: Pitman Medical.
  • Scherer, G. 1999. Smoking behaviour and compensation: a review of the literature. Psychopharmacology 145:1-20.
  • Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health (SCOTH). 1988. Fourth report of the Independent Scientific Committee on Smoking & Health, ed. P. Froggatt, chairman. London: Department of Health and Social Security, Department of Health and Social Services Northern Ireland, Scottish Home and Health Department, Welsh Office, HMSO.
  • Seidell, J. C. 1998. Dietary fat and obesity: An epidemiologic perspective. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67(suppl.): 546S-550S.
  • Selikoff, I. J., and Hammond, E. C. 1975. Multiple risk factors in environmental cancer. In Persons at high risk of cancer. An approach to cancer etiology and control, ed. J. F. Fraumeni, Jr., pp. 467483. New York: Academic Press Inc.
  • Sherman, M. P., Aberhard, E. E., Wong, V. Z., Simmons, M. S., Roth, M. D., and Tashkin, D. P. 1995. Effects of smoking marijuana, tobacco or cocaine alone or in combination on DNA damage in human alveolar macrophages. Life Sci. 56:2201-2207.
  • Sidney, S., Tekawa, I. S., and Friedman, G. D. 1993. A prospective study of cigarette tar yield and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 4:3-10.
  • Sidney, S., Quesenberry, C. P., Jr., and Friedman, G. D. 1997. Marijuana use and cancer incidence (California, United States). Cancer Causes Control 8:722-728.
  • Sobue, T., Yamamoto, S., Hara, M., Sasazuki, S., Sasaki, S., and Tsugane, S. 2002. Cigarette smoking and subsequent risk of lung cancer by histologie type in middle-aged Japanese men and women: the JPHC study. Int. J. Cancer 99:245-251.
  • Speizer, F. E., and Samet, J. M. 1994. Air pollution and lung cancer. In Epidemiology of lung cancer: Lung biology in health and disease, ed. J. M. Samet, vol. 74, pp. 131-150. New York: Marcel Dekker.
  • Stephen, A., Frost, C., Thompson, S., and WaId, N. 1989. Estimating the extent of compensatory smoking. In Nicotine, smoking and the low tar programme, Proceedings of a symposium 'Nicotine, smoking, and the low tar programme.' London, 18-20 November 1986, eds. N. WaId, and P. Froggatt, pp. 100-115. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Swartz, J. B. 1992. Use of a multistage model to predict time trends in smoking induced lung cancer. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 46:311-315.
  • Thun, M. J., Day-Lally, C., Myers, D. G., CaIIe, E. E., Dana Flanders, W., Zhu, B.-P., Namboodiri, M. M., and Heath, C. W., Jr. 1997. Trends in tobacco smoking and mortality from cigarette use in cancer prevention studies I (1959 through 1965) and Il 1982 through 1988. In Changes in cigarette-related disease risks and their implications for prevention and control, eds. D. Burns, L. Garfinkel, and J. M. Samet, pp. 305-382. Smoking and Tobacco Control. Monograph 8, (NIH Publication No. 97-4213.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Chemicals evaluated for carcinogenic potential. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA. http:JJwww.pestlaw.com/x/guide/2002/EPA-20020508A.pdf
  • U.S. Surgeon General. 1979. Smoking and health, a report of the Surgeon General. DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 79-50066. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service.
  • U.S. Surgeon General. 1980. The health consequences of smoking for women, a report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Public Health Service.
  • U.S. Surgeon General. 1989. Reducing the health consequences of smoking. 25 years of progress. A report of the Surgeon General. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 89-8411. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Public Health Services.
  • WaId, N., and Nicolaides-Bouman, A., eds. 1991. UK smoking statistics, 2nd ed. London and Oxford: Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine and Oxford University Press.
  • Waterhouse, J., Muir, C., Correa, P., and Powell, J., eds. 1976. Cancer incidence in five continents, vol. III. Lyon, France: IARC.
  • Whittemore, A. S. 1988. Effect of cigarette smoking in epidemiological studies of lung cancer. Stat. Med. 7:223-238.
  • Wu, A. H., Fontham, E. T. H., Reynolds, P., Greenberg, R. S., Buffler, P., Liff, J., Boyd, P., Henderson, B. E., and Correa, P. 1995. Previous lung disease and risk of lung cancer among lifetime nonsmoking women in the United States. Am. J. Epidemiol. 141:1023-1032.
  • Wu, T.-C., Tashkin, D. P., Djahed, B., and Rose, J. E. 1988. Pulmonary hazards of smoking marijuana as compared with tobacco. N. Engl. J. Med. 318:347-351.
  • Wynder, E., and Payson Fairchild, E., Jr. 1966. The role of history of persistent cough in the epidemiology of lung cancer. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 94:709-720.
  • Wynder, E. L., Covey, L. S., and Mabuchi, K. 1973. Lung cancer in women: present and future trends. JNCJ51:391-401.
  • Wynder, E. L., Hebert, J. R., and Kabat, G. C. 1987. Association of dietary fat and lung cancer. JNCI 79:631-637.
  • Xie, J., Lesaffre, E., and Kesteloot, H. 1991. The relationship between animal fat intake, cigarette smoking, and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2:79-83.
  • Zang, E. A., and Wynder, E. L. 1996. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence. JNCI 88:183-192.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.