A comprehensive review of antimalarial medicinal plants used by Tanzanians

References

• Addis T, Mekonnen Y, Ayenew Z, Fentaw S, Biazin H. 2021. Bacterial uropathogens and burden of antimicrobial resistance pattern in urine specimens referred to Ethiopian Public Health Institute. PLOS One. 16(11):e0259602. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adekunle M. 2008. Indigenous uses of plant leaves to treat malaria fever at Omo Forest Reserve (OFR) Ogun state, Nigeria. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manag. 1(1):31–35.
   Google Scholar
• Adia MM, Emami SN, Byamukama R, Faye I, Borg-Karlson A-K. 2016. Antiplasmodial activity and phytochemical analysis of extracts from selected Ugandan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 186:14–19. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agbodeka K, Gbekley HE, Karou SD, Anani K, Agbonon A, Tchacondo T, Batawila K, Simpore J, Gbeassor M. 2016. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in the Plateau region, Togo. Pharmacogn Res. 8(Suppl. 1):S12–S18. doi: 10.4103/0974-8490.178646.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ajaiyeoba E, Ashidi J, Abiodun O, Okpako L, Ogbole O, Akinboye D, Falade C, Bolaji O, Gbotosho G, Falade M, et al. 2005. Antimalarial ethnobotany: in vitro antiplasmodial activity of seven plants identified in the Nigerian middle belt. Pharm Biol. 42(8):588–591. doi: 10.1080/13880200490902455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajao AA, Mukaila YO, Sabiu S. 2022. Wandering through southwestern Nigeria: an inventory of Yoruba useful angiosperm plants. Heliyon. 8(1):e08668. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akah PA, Nwafor SV. 1999. Studies on anti-ulcer properties of Cissampelos mucronata leaf extract. Indian J Exp Biol. 37(9):936–938.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alebie G, Urga B, Worku A. 2017. Systematic review on traditional medicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in Ethiopia: trends and perspectives. Malar J. 16(1):307. doi: 10.1186/s12936-017-1953-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alli LA, Adesokan AA, Salawu AO. 2016. Antimalarial activity of fractions of aqueous extract of Acacia nilotica root. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 5(2):180–185. doi: 10.5455/jice.20160331064817.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alozieuwa UB, Mann A, Kabiru AY, Ogbadoyi EO. 2022. In vivo antimalarial efficacy of Psidium guajava leaf crude extract and fractions in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. AROC Nat Prod Res. 2(1):28–37. doi: 10.53858/arocnpr02012837.
   Google Scholar
• Alshawsh MA, Mothana RA, Al-Shamahy HA, Alsllami SF, Lindequist U. 2009. Assessment of antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum and phytochemical screening of some Yemeni medicinal plants. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 6(4):453–456. doi: 10.1093/ecam/nem148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amoa Onguéné P, Ntie-Kang F, Lifongo LL, Ndom JC, Sippl W, Mbaze LM. 2013. The potential of anti-malarial compounds derived from African medicinal plants. Part I: a pharmacological evaluation of alkaloids and terpenoids. Malar J. 12(1):449. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-449.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amri E, Kisangau DP. 2012. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used in villages around Kimboza forest reserve in Morogoro, Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 8(1):1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arome D, Chinedu E, Ameh S, Sunday A. 2016. Comparative antiplasmodial evaluation of Cymbopogon citratus extracts in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. J Curr Res Sci Med. 2(1):29–35. doi: 10.4103/2455-3069.184126.
   Google Scholar
• Asanga EE, Okoroiwu H, Edet UO, Amaechi D, Nelson PE, Uchenwa M, Eseyin OA, Samuel G, Ettah LA, Obongha OA. 2023. Antimalarial activity of Mangifera indica aqueous extract in Plasmodium berghei's apicoplast. Trop J Pharm Res. 22(5):1007–1015. doi: 10.4314/tjpr.v22i5.11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asase A, Akwetey GA, Achel DG. 2010. Ethnopharmacological use of herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana. J Ethnopharmacol. 129(3):367–376. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asres K, Bucar F, Knauder E, Yardley V, Kendrick H, Croft S. 2001. In vitro antiprotozoal activity of extract and compounds from the stem bark of Combretum molle. Phytother Res. 15(7):613–617. doi: 10.1002/ptr.897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Augustino S, Gillah PR. 2005. Medicinal plants in urban districts of Tanzania: plants, gender roles and sustainable use. Int Forest Rev. 7(1):44–58. doi: 10.1505/ifor.7.1.44.64157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Augustino S, Hall JB, Makonda FBS, Ishengoma RC. 2011. Medicinal resources of the Miombo woodlands of Urumwa, Tanzania: plants and its uses. J Med Plants Res. 5:6352–6372.
   Google Scholar
• Ayalew M, Atnafie SA, Bekele A. 2022. Antimalarial activity of solvent fractions of a leaf of Eucalyptus globulus Labill against Plasmodium berghei infected mice. BMC Complement Med Ther. 22(1):221. doi: 10.1186/s12906-022-03702-1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Begum S, Munissi JJE, Buriyo AS, Makangara JJ, Lucantoni L, Avery VM, Erdelyi M, Nyandoro SS. 2020. Antiplasmodial, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of extracts from selected medicinal plants growing in Tanzania. J Biol Act Prod Nat. 10(2):165–176. doi: 10.1080/22311866.2020.1770125.
   Google Scholar
• Bero J, Frédérich M, Quetin-Leclercq J. 2009. Antimalarial compounds isolated from plants used in traditional medicine. J Pharm Pharmacol. 61(11):1401–1433. doi: 10.1211/jpp/61.11.0001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray DH, Warhurst DC, Connolly JD, O'Neill MJ, Phillipson JD. 1990. Plants as sources of antimalarial drugs. Part 7. Activity of some species of Meliaceae plants and their constituent limonoids. Phytother Res. 4(1):29–35. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2650040108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkill HM. 2000. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 5: Families S-Z, addenda, corrigenda, cryptogamata. 2nd ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; p. 686.
   Google Scholar
• Challand S, Willcox M. 2009. A clinical trial of the traditional medicine Vernonia amygdalina in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria. J Altern Complement Med. 15(11):1231–1237. doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah BLA, Mshiu EN. 1987. Plants used in traditional medicine in eastern Tanzania. I. Pteridophytes and angiosperms (Acanthaceae to Canellaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 21(3):253–277. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(87)90103-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. 1989. Plants used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania. II. Angiosperms (Capparidaceae to Ebenaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 25(3):339–359. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(89)90038-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. 1990a. Plants used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania. III. Angiosperms (Euphorbiaceae to Menispermaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 28(3):255–283. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(90)90078-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. 1990b. Plants used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania. IV. Angiosperms (Mimosaceae to Papilionaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 29(3):295–323. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(90)90041-q.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. 1991. Plants used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania. V. Angiosperms (Passifloraceae to Sapindaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 33(1–2):143–157. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(91)90173-b.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. 1993. Plants used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania. VI. Angiosperms (Sapotaceae to Zingiberaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 39(2):83–103. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(93)90024-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA. 1994. Plants used in traditional medicine by Hayas of the Kagera region, Tanzania. Econ Bot. 48(2):121–129. doi: 10.1007/BF02908198.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarkson C, Maharaj VJ, Crouch NR, Grace OM, Pillay P, Matsabisa MG, Bhagwandin N, Smith PJ, Folb PI. 2004. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised in South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol. 92(2–3):177–191. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dao F, Djonor SK, Ayin CT-M, Adu GA, Sarfo B, Nortey P, Akuffo KO, Danso-Appiah A. 2021. Burden of malaria in children under five and caregivers' health-seeking behaviour for malaria-related symptoms in artisanal mining communities in Ghana. Parasit Vect. 14:418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebifa-Othieno E, Mugisha A, Nyeko P, Kabasa JD. 2017. Knowledge, attitudes and practices in tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) use and conservation in Eastern Uganda. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 13:5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fandohan P, Gnonlonfin B, Laleye A, Gbenou JD, Darboux R, Moudachirou M. 2008. Toxicity and gastric tolerance of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum basilicum in Wistar rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 46(7):2493–2497. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Froelich S, Onegi B, Kakooko A, Siems K, Schubert C, Jenett-Siems K. 2007. Plants traditionally used against malaria: phytochemical and pharmacological investigation of Momordica foetida. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 17(1):1–17. doi: 10.1590/S0102-695X2007000100002.
   Google Scholar
• Frumence G, Nyamhanga T, Mwangu M, Hurtig A-K. 2013. Challenges to the implementation of health sector decentralization in Tanzania: experiences from Kongwa District Council. Glob Health Action. 6(1):20983. doi: 10.3402/gha.v6i0.20983.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gakunju DM, Mberu EK, Dossaji SF, Gray AI, Waigh RD, Waterman PG, Watkins WM. 1995. Potent antimalarial activity of the alkaloid nitidine, isolated from a Kenyan herbal remedy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 39(12):2606–2609. doi: 10.1128/AAC.39.12.2606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garaniya N, Bapodra A. 2014. Ethno botanical and phytopharmacological potential of Abrus precatorius L.: a review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 4(Suppl. 1):S27–S34. doi: 10.12980/APJTB.4.2014C1069.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gathirwa JW, Rukunga GM, Mwitari PG, Mwikwabe NM, Kimani CW, Muthaura CN, Kiboi DM, Nyangacha RM, Omar SA. 2011. Traditional herbal antimalarial therapy in Kilifi district, Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 134(2):434–442. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.12.043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gessler MC, Msuya DE, Nkunya MHH, Mwasumbi LB, Schär A, Heinrich M, Tanner M. 1995. Traditional healers in Tanzania: the treatment of malaria with plant remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 48(3):131–144. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(95)01293-m.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedberg I, Hedberg O, Madat PJ, Mshigeni KE, Mshiu EN, Samuelsson G. 1983. Inventory of plants used in traditional medicine in Tanzania. II. Plants of the families Dilleniaceae—Opiliaceae. J Ethnopharmacol. 9(1):105–127. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(83)90030-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilonga S, Otieno JN, Ghorbani A, Pereus D, Kocyan A, de Boer H. 2019. Trade of wild-harvested medicinal plant species in local markets of Tanzania and its implications for conservation. S Afr J Bot. 122:214–224. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2018.08.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodoameda P, Duah-Quashie NO, Quashie NB. 2022. Assessing the roles of molecular markers of antimalarial drug resistance and the host pharmacogenetics in drug-resistant malaria. J Trop Med. 2022:3492696–3492699. doi: 10.1155/2022/3492696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwalewa E, Suleiman MM, Mdee L, Eloff J. 2009. Antifungal and antibacterial activities of different extracts of Harungana madagascariensis stem bark. Pharm Biol. 47(9):878–885. doi: 10.1080/13880200903029316.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwalewa EO, Omisore NO, Adewunmi CO, Gbolade AA, Ademowo OG, Nneji C, Agboola OI, Daniyan OM. 2008. Anti-protozoan activities of Harungana madagascariensis stem bark extract on trichomonads and malaria. J Ethnopharmacol. 117(3):507–511. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.02.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph CC, Magadula JJ, Nkunya MHH. 2007. A novel antiplasmodial 3′,5′-diformylchalcone and other constituents of Friesodielsia obovata. Nat Prod Res. 21(11):1009–1015. doi: 10.1080/14786410701194310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kacholi DS, Amir HM. 2022. Herbal remedies used by traditional healers to treat haemorrhoids in Tabora region, Tanzania. Pharm Biol. 60(1):2182–2188. doi: 10.1080/13880209.2022.2136204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kacholi DS, Amir HM. 2023. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants traditionally used against erectile dysfunction in Tabora region, Tanzania. Ethnobot Res Appl. 25:1–12. doi: 10.32859/era.30.5.1-12.
   Google Scholar
• Kacholi DS. 2014. Indigenous tree uses, use-values and impact of human population on forest size, structure and species richness in Uluguru, Morogoro, Tanzania. Tanz J Sci. 40(1):34–50.
   Google Scholar
• Kacholi DS. 2020. Density and aboriginal uses of wild tree species in Milawilila Forest Reserve in Morogoro region, Tanzania. Tanz J Sci. 46(1):85–100.
   Google Scholar
• Kamau PK, Nga'ng'a Z, Njeruh FM, Thuita J. 2020. In vitro antiplasmodial, cytotoxicity assay and partial chemical characterization of Kenyan Physalis peruviana L. (Solanaceae family) extracts. J Med Plants Res. 14:73–80.
   Google Scholar
• Kaou AM, Mahiou-Leddet V, Hutter S, Aïnouddine S, Hassani S, Yahaya I, Azas N, Ollivier E. 2008. Antimalarial activity of crude extracts from nine African medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 116(1):74–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.11.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karthivashan G, Tangestani Fard M, Arulselvan P, Abas F, Fakurazi S. 2013. Identification of bioactive candidate compounds responsible for oxidative challenge from hydro-ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves. J Food Sci. 78(9):C1368–C1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassimu K, Milando F, Omolo J, Mdemu A, Nyaulingo G, Mbarak H, Mohamed L, Rashid R, Ahmed S, Rashid M, et al. 2022. Safety and tolerability of an antimalarial herbal remedy in healthy volunteers: an open-label, single-arm, dose-escalation study on Maytenus senegalensis in Tanzania. Trop Med Infect Dis. 7(12):396. doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed7120396.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Katemo M, Mpiana PT, Mbala BM, Mihigo SO, Ngbolua KN, Tshibangu DST, Koyange PR. 2012. Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used against diabetes in Kisangani City (DR Congo). J Ethnopharmacol. 144(1):39–43. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katuura E, Waako P, Ogwal-Okeng J, Bukenya-Ziraba R. 2007. Traditional treatment of malaria in Mbarara District, Western Uganda. Afr J Ecol. 45(S1):48–51. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00737.x.
   Google Scholar
• Kayembe JS, Taba KM, Ntumba K, Tshiongo MTC, Kazadi TK. 2010. In vitro anti-malarial activity of 20 quinones isolated from four plants used by traditional healers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Med Plants Res. 4:991–994.
   Google Scholar
• Kayombo EJ, Uiso FC, Mahunnah RL. 2012. Experience on healthcare utilization in seven administrative regions of Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 8:5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidane B, Van Andel T, Van Der Maesen LJG, Asfaw Z. 2014. Use and management of traditional medicinal plants by Maale and Ari ethnic communities in southern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 10:46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingo RM, Maregesi SM. 2020. Ethnopharmacological study on some medicinal plants used in Ujiji, Kigoma, Tanzania. J Phytopharmacol. 9(2):102–109. doi: 10.31254/phyto.2020.9205.
   Google Scholar
• Kiraithe MN, Nguta JM, Mbaria JM, Kiama SG. 2016. Evaluation of the use of Ocimum suave Willd. (Lamiaceae), Plectranthus barbatus Andrews (Lamiaceae) and Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. (Rutaceae) as antimalarial remedies in Kenyan folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 178:266–271. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.12.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirira PG, Rukunga GM, Wanyonyi AW, Muregi FM, Gathirwa JW, Muthaura CN, Omar SA, Tolo F, Mungai GM, Ndiege IO. 2006. Anti-plasmodial activity and toxicity of extracts of plants used in traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilifi Districts of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 106(3):403–407. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch A, Tamez P, Pezzuto J, Soejarto D. 2005. Evaluation of plants used for antimalarial treatment by the Maasai of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 101(1–3):95–99. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2005.03.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuria K, Coster D, Muriuki G, Masengo W, Kibwage I, Hoogmartens J, Laekeman G. 2001. Antimalarial activity of Ajuga remota Benth (Labiatae) and Caesalpinia volkensii Harms (Caesalpiniaceae): in vitro confirmation of ethnopharmacological use. J Ethnopharmacol. 74(2):141–148. doi: 10.1016/s0378-8741(00)00367-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kweyamba PA, Zofou D, Efange N, Assob J-CN, Kitau J, Nyindo M. 2019. In vitro and in vivo studies on anti-malarial activity of Commiphora africana and Dichrostachys cinerea used by the Maasai in Arusha region, Tanzania. Malar J. 18(1):119. doi: 10.1186/s12936-019-2752-8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lacroix D, Prado S, Kamoga D, Kasenene J, Namukobe J, Krief S, Dumontet V, Mouray E, Bodo B, Brunois F. 2011. Antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of medicinal plants traditionally used in the village of Kiohima, Uganda. J Ethnopharmacol. 133(2):850–855. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai B-Y, Chen T-Y, Huang S-H, Kuo T-F, Chang T-H, Chiang C-K, Yang M-T, Chang CL-T. 2015. Bidens pilosa formulation improves blood homeostasis and β-cell function in men: a pilot study. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015:832314–832315. doi: 10.1155/2015/832314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lans CA. 2006. Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2:45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laryea MK, Borquaye LS. 2019. Antimalarial efficacy and toxicological assessment of extracts of some Ghanaian medicinal plants. J Parasitol Res. 2019:1630405–1630409. doi: 10.1155/2019/1630405.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JPA, Clarke M, Devereaux PJ, Kleijnen J, Moher D. 2009. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate healthcare interventions: explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med. 6(7):e1000100. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limmatvapirat C, Sirisopanaporn S, Kittakoop P. 2004. Antitubercular and antiplasmodial constituents of Abrus precatorius. Planta Med. 70(3):276–278. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-818924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu NQ, Van der Kooy F, Verpoorte R. 2009. Artemisia afra: a potential flagship for African medicinal plants? S Afr J Bot. 75(2):185–195. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2008.11.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomis TA, Hayes AW. 2014. Loomis's essentials of toxicology. 4th ed. San Diego: Academic Press; p. 282.
   Google Scholar
• Makundi EA, Mboera LEG, Malebo HM, Kitua AY. 2007. Priority setting on malaria interventions in Tanzania: strategies and challenges to mitigate against the intolerable burden. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 77(6_Suppl.):106–111. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malebo HM, Wiketye V, Katani SJ, Kitufe NA, Nyigo VA, Imeda CP, Ogondiek JW, Sunguruma R, Mhame PP, Massaga JJ, et al. 2015. In vivo antiplasmodial and toxicological effect of Maytenus senegalensis traditionally used in the treatment of malaria in Tanzania. Malar J. 14(1):79. doi: 10.1186/s12936-014-0525-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Malik A, Akbar E, Afza N, Hai S. 2002. Flavone glycosides and bergenin derivatives from Tridax procumbens. Heterocycles. 57(4):733–739. doi: 10.3987/COM-02-9432.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manuel L, Bechel A, Noormahomed EV, Hlashwayo DF, Madureira MdC. 2020. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by the traditional healers to treat malaria in Mogovolas district, northern Mozambique. Heliyon. 6(12):e05746. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maregesi SM, Ngassapa OD, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ. 2007. Ethnopharmacological survey of the Bunda district, Tanzania: plants used to treat infectious diseases. J Ethnopharmacol. 113(3):457–470. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maroyi A. 2013. Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: review and perspectives. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 9:31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinello F, Soares SM, Franco JJ, Santos AC, Sugohara A, Garcia SB, Curti C, Uyemura SA. 2006. Hypolipemic and antioxidant activities from Tamarindus indica L. pulp fruit extract in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Food Chem Toxicol. 44(6):810–818. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.10.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbinile SD, Munishi LK, Ngondya IB, Ndakidemi PA. 2020. Spatial distribution and anthropogenic threats facing medicinal plant Zanthoxylum chalybeum in Simanjiro area, Northern Tanzania. Sci Afr. 10:e00562. doi: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00562.
   Google Scholar
• Memvanga PB, Tona GL, Mesia GK, Lusakibanza MM, Cimanga RK. 2015. Antimalarial activity of medicinal plants from the Democratic Republic of Congo: a review. J Ethnopharmacol. 169:76–98. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesfin F, Demissew S, Teklehaymanot T. 2009. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Wonago Woreda, SNNPR, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 5:28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midiwo JO, Omoto FM, Yenesew A, Akala HM, Wangui J, Liyala P, Wasunna C, Waters NC. 2006. The first 9-hydroxyhomoisoflavanone, and antiplasmodial chalcones, from the aerial exudates of Polygonum senegalense. ARKIVOC. 2007(9):21–27. doi: 10.3998/ark.5550190.0008.904.
   Google Scholar
• Mogha NG, Kalokora OJ, Amir HM, Kacholi DS. 2022. Ethnomedicinal plants used for treatment of snakebites in Tanzania – a systematic review. Pharm Biol. 60(1):1925–1934. doi: 10.1080/13880209.2022.2123942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moshi MJ, Otieno DF, Mbabazi PK, Weisheit A. 2009. The ethnomedicine of the Haya people of Bugabo ward, Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 5:24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moshi MJ, Otieno DF, Mbabazi PK, Weisheit A. 2010. Ethnomedicine of the Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. Part 2: the medicinal plants used in Katoro Ward, Bukoba District. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 6:19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moshi MJ, Otieno DF, Weisheit A. 2012. Ethnomedicine of the Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. Part 3: plants used in traditional medicine in Kikuku village, Muleba District. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 8:14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muganga R, Angenot L, Tits M, Frédérich M. 2010. Antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of Rwandan medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria. J Ethnopharmacol. 128(1):52–57. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muregi FW, Chhabra SC, Njagi ENM, Lang'at-Thoruwa CC, Njue WM, Orago ASS, Omar SA, Ndiege IO. 2003. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of some plants used in Kisii, Kenya against malaria and their chloroquine potentiation effects. J Ethnopharmacol. 84(2–3):235–239. doi: 10.1016/s0378-8741(02)00327-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murugan K, Panneerselvam C, Subramaniam J, Madhiyazhagan P, Hwang J-S, Wang L, Dinesh D, Suresh U, Roni M, Higuchi A, et al. 2016. Eco-friendly drugs from the marine environment: spongeweed-synthesized silver nanoparticles are highly effective on Plasmodium falciparum and its vector Anopheles stephensi, with little non-target effects on predatory copepods. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 23(16):16671–16685. doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-6832-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthaura CN, Keriko JM, Mutai C, Yenesew A, Gathirwa JW, Irungu BN, Nyangacha R, Mungai GM, Derese S. 2015. Antiplasmodial potential of traditional antimalarial phytotherapy remedies used by the Kwale community of the Kenyan Coast. J Ethnopharmacol. 170:148–157. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.05.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanyingi M, Kipsengeret KB, Wagate C, Langat B, Asaava L, Midiwo J. 2009. In vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activity of Kenyan medicinal plants. In: Midiwo JO, Clough J, editors. Aspects of African biodiversity: Proceedings of the Pan-Africa Chemistry Network. Cambridge (UK): RCS Publishing; p. 20–28.
   Google Scholar
• Ngarivhume T, Van't Klooster CIEA, de Jong JTVM, Van der Westhuizen JH. 2015. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers for the treatment of malaria in the Chipinge district in Zimbabwe. J Ethnopharmacol. 159:224–237. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.11.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguta JM, Mbaria JM. 2013. Brine shrimp toxicity and antimalarial activity of some plants traditionally used in treatment of malaria in Msambweni district of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 148(3):988–992. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigussie G, Wale M. 2022. Medicinal plants used in traditional treatment of malaria in Ethiopia: a review of ethnomedicine, anti-malarial and toxicity studies. Malar J. 21(1):262. doi: 10.1186/s12936-022-04264-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nondo RSO, Moshi MJ, Erasto P, Masimba PJ, Machumi F, Kidukuli AW, Heydenreich M, Zofou D. 2017. Anti-plasmodial activity of Norcaesalpin D and extracts of four medicinal plants used traditionally for treatment of malaria. BMC Complement Alternat Med. 17:167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nondo RSO, Zofou D, Mainen JM, Erasto P, Samuel S, Ngemenya NM, Titanji PKV, Kidukuli WA, Masimba JP. 2015. Ethnobotanical survey and in vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Kagera and Lindi regions, Tanzania. J Med Plants Res. 9(6):179–192. doi: 10.5897/JMPR2014.5685.
   Google Scholar
• Ntie-Kang F, Onguéné PA, Lifongo LL, Ndom JC, Sippl W, Mbaze LM. 2014. The potential of anti-malarial compounds derived from African medicinal plants, part II: a pharmacological evaluation of non-alkaloids and non-terpenoids. Malar J. 13(1):81. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-13-81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Obbo CJD, Kariuki ST, Gathirwa JW, Olaho-Mukani W, Cheplogoi PK, Mwangi EM. 2019. In vitro antiplasmodial, antitrypanosomal and antileishmanial activities of selected medicinal plants from Ugandan flora: refocusing into multi-component potentials. J Ethnopharmacol. 229:127–136. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2018.09.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odugbemi TO, Akinsulire OR, Aibinu IE, Fabeku PO. 2006. Medicinal plants useful for malaria therapy in Okeigbo, Ondo State, Southwest Nigeria. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 4:191–198.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okaiyeto K, Oguntibeju OO. 2021. African herbal medicines: adverse effects and cytotoxic potentials with different therapeutic applications. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 18(11):5988. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18115988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okello D, Kang Y. 2019. Exploring antimalarial herbal plants across communities in Uganda based on electronic Data. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2019:1–27. doi: 10.1155/2019/3057180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oketch-Rabah HA, Dossaji SF, Mberu EK. 1999. Antimalarial activity of some Kenyan medicinal plants. Pharm Biol. 37(5):329–334. doi: 10.1076/phbi.37.5.329.6053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olanlokun JO, David OM, Afolayan AJ. 2017. In vitro antiplasmodial activity and prophylactic potentials of extract and fractions of Trema orientalis (Linn.) stem bark. BMC Complement Alternat Med. 17:407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omara T, Kagoya S, Openy A, Omute T, Ssebulime S, Kiplagat KM, Bongomin O. 2020. Antivenin plants used for treatment of snakebites in Uganda: ethnobotanical reports and pharmacological evidences. Trop Med Health. 48(1):6. doi: 10.1186/s41182-019-0187-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omara T. 2020. Antimalarial plants used across Kenyan communities. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020:1–31. doi: 10.1155/2020/4538602.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omulokoli E, Khan B, Chhabra SC. 1997. Antiplasmodial activity of four Kenyan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 56(2):133–137. doi: 10.1016/s0378-8741(97)01521-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orwa JA, Ngeny L, Mwikwabe NM, Ondicho J, Jondiko IJO. 2013. Antimalarial and safety evaluation of extracts from Toddalia asiatica (L) Lam. (Rutaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 145(2):587–590. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owuor BO, Ochanda JO, Kokwaro JO, Cheruiyot AC, Yeda RA, Okudo CA, Akala HM. 2012. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of selected Luo and Kuria medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 144(3):779–781. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.09.045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oyeyemi IT, Akinseye KM, Adebayo SS, Oyetunji MT, Oyeyemi OT. 2019. Ethnobotanical survey of the plants used for the management of malaria in Ondo State, Nigeria. S Afr J Bot. 124:391–401. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2019.06.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parasuraman S. 2011. Toxicological screening. J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 2(2):74–79. doi: 10.4103/0976-500X.81895.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pattanayak S, Das DC, Sinha NK, Parida S. 2017. Use of medicinal plants for the treatment of urinary tract infections: a study from Paschim Medinipur District, West Bengal, India. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 8(3):250–259. doi: 10.22376/ijpbs.2017.8.3.p250-259.
   Google Scholar
• Perez H, Rosa M, Apitz R. 1994. In vivo activity of ajoene against rodent malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38(2):337–339. doi: 10.1128/AAC.38.2.337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillipson JD, Wright CW. 1991. Can ethnopharmacology contribute to the development of antimalarial agents? J Ethnopharmacol. 32(1–3):155–165. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(91)90113-r.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierre S, Fernand-N TF, Alexandre-Michel NN, Jean M. 2011. Medicinal plants used in traditional treatment of malaria in Cameroon. J Ecol Nat Environ. 3:104–117.
   Google Scholar
• Pillay P, Maharaj VJ, Smith PJ. 2008. Investigating South African plants as a source of new antimalarial drugs. J Ethnopharmacol. 119(3):438–454. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahmatullah M, Hossan S, Khatun A, Seraj S, Jahan R. 2012. Medicinal plants used by various tribes of Bangladesh for treatment of malaria. Malar Res Treat. 2012:e371798. doi: 10.1155/2012/371798.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramathal DC, Ngassapa OD. 2001. Medicinal plants used by Rwandese traditional healers in refugee camps in Tanzania. Pharm Biol. 39(2):132–137. doi: 10.1076/phbi.39.2.132.6251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen C, Alonso P, Ringwald P. 2022. Current and emerging strategies to combat antimalarial resistance. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 20(3):353–372. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1962291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruffo C. 1991. A survey of medicinal plants in Tabora region, Tanzania. In: Mshigeni KE, Nkunya MHH, Fupi V, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN, editors. Traditional medicinal plants. 1st ed. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press – Ministry of Health, Tanzania; p. 391–406.
   Google Scholar
• Rukunga GM, Muregi FW, Tolo FM, Omar SA, Mwitari P, Muthaura CN, Omlin F, Lwande W, Hassanali A, Githure J, et al. 2007. The antiplasmodial activity of spermine alkaloids isolated from Albizia gummifera. Fitoterapia. 78(7–8):455–459. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2007.02.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumisha SF, Shayo EH, Mboera LEG. 2019. Spatio-temporal prevalence of malaria and anaemia in relation to agro-ecosystems in Mvomero district, Tanzania. Malar J. 18(1):228. doi: 10.1186/s12936-019-2859-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salinitro M, Vicentini R, Bonomi C, Tassoni A. 2017. Traditional knowledge on wild and cultivated plants in the Kilombero Valley (Morogoro Region, Tanzania). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 13(1):17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shangali CF, Zilihona IJE, Mwang'ingo PLP, Nummelin M. 2008. Use of medicinal plants in the Eastern Arc Mountains with special reference to the Hehe Ethnic Group in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. J East Afr Nat Hist. 97(2):225–254. doi: 10.2982/0012-8317-97.2.225.
   Google Scholar
• Shukla G, Bhatt JA, Chakravarty S. 2018. Folk therapeutic uses of ethnomedicinal plants to cure gynecological disorders: a meta-analysis of West Bengal State in India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 24:1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Silva MGB, Aragão TP, Vasconcelos CFB, Ferreira PA, Andrade BA, Costa IMA, Costa-Silva JH, Wanderley AG, Lafayette SSL. 2011. Acute and subacute toxicity of Cassia occidentalis L. stem and leaf in Wistar rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 136(2):341–346. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh SV, Manhas A, Kumar Y, Mishra S, Shanker K, Khan F, Srivastava K, Pal A. 2017. Antimalarial activity and safety assessment of Flueggea virosa leaves and its major constituent with special emphasis on their mode of action. Biomed Pharmacother. 89:761–771. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.02.056.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smolenski SJ, Silinis H, Farnsworth NR. 1975. Alkaloid screening. VIII. Lloydia. 38(6):497–528.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Somsak V, Borkaew P, Klubsri C, Dondee K, Bootprom P, Saiphet B. 2016. Antimalarial properties of aqueous crude extracts of Gynostemma pentaphyllum and Moringa oleifera leaves in combination with artesunate in Plasmodium berghei-infected Mice. J Trop Med. 2016:8031392–8031396. doi: 10.1155/2016/8031392.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stangeland T, Alele PE, Katuura E, Lye KA. 2011. Plants used to treat malaria in Nyakayojo sub-county, western Uganda. J Ethnopharmacol. 137(1):154–166. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabuti JRS, Obakiro SB, Nabatanzi A, Anywar G, Nambejja C, Mutyaba MR, Omara T, Waako P. 2023. Medicinal plants used for treatment of malaria by indigenous communities of Tororo District, Eastern Uganda. Trop Med Health. 51(1):34. doi: 10.1186/s41182-023-00526-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taek M, Prajogo B, Agil M. 2018. Plants used in traditional medicine for treatment of malaria by Tetun ethnic people in West Timor Indonesia. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 11(11):630–637. doi: 10.4103/1995-7645.246339.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teklay A, Abera B, Giday M. 2013. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in Kilte Awulaelo District, Tigray Region of Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 9:65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thu AM, Phyo AP, Landier J, Parker DM, Nosten FH. 2017. Combating multidrug‐resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. FEBS J. 284(16):2569–2578. doi: 10.1111/febs.14127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiko GH, Adamou R, Amoussa AMO, Medjigbodo AA, Sanni A, Djogbénou LS, Lagnika L. 2020. Antiplasmodial, antioxidant, hemolytic activities and acute toxicity of Costus afer Ker Gawl (Costaceae) used in malaria healing in Benin. Res J Med Plants. 14(1):24–34.
   Google Scholar
• Tona L, Mesia K, Ngimbi NP, Chrimwami B, Cimanga K, de Bruyne T, Apers S, Hermans N, Totte J, Pieters L, et al. 2001. In-vivo antimalarial activity of Cassia occidentalis, Morinda morindoides and Phyllanthus niruri. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 95(1):47–57. doi: 10.1080/00034983.2001.11813614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner PV, Brabb T, Pekow C, Vasbinder MA. 2011. Administration of substances to laboratory animals: routes of administration and factors to consider. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 50(5):600–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weenen H, Nkunya MH, Bray DH, Mwasumbi LB, Kinabo LS, Kilimali VA. 1990. Antimalarial activity of Tanzanian medicinal plants. Planta Med. 56(4):368–370. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-960984.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White NJ. 2004. Antimalarial drug resistance. J Clin Invest. 113(8):1084–1092. doi: 10.1172/JCI21682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wicht KJ, Mok S, Fidock DA. 2020. Molecular mechanisms of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum Malaria. Annu Rev Microbiol. 74(1):431–454. doi: 10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-115546.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• [WHO] World Health Organization. 2014. WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014–2023. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization Press; p. 76.
   Google Scholar
• [WHO] World Health Organization. 2021. World malaria report 2021. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization Press; p. 263.
   Google Scholar