Size class, sex ratio, and spatial distribution of four populations of Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala under different long-term rainfall regimes

References

• Álvarez-Cansino, L., M. Zunzunegui, M. C. Díaz Barradas, O. Correia, and M. P. Esquivias. 2013. Effects of temperature and rainfall variation on population structure and sexual dimorphism across the geographical range of a dioecious species. Population Ecology, (55):135–146. doi: 10.1007/s10144-012-0336-3.
   Google Scholar
• Ashman, T. L. 2002. The role of herbivores in the evolution of separate sexes from hermaphroditism. Ecology 83 (5):1175–84. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1175:TROHIT]2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A., and R. Turner. 2005. spatstat: An R package for analyzing spatial point patterns. Journal of Statistical Software 12 (6):1–42. doi: 10.18637/jss.v012.i06.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, S. C. H., A. L. Case, and G. B. Peters. 1999. Gender modification and resource allocation in subdioecious Wurmbea dioica (Colchicaceae). Journal of Ecology 87 (1):123–37. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2745.1999.00336.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumann, K., P. Marschner, R. J. Smernik, and J. A. Baldock. 2009. Residue chemistry and microbial community structure during decomposition of eucalypt, wheat and vetch residues. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 41 (9):1966–75. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2009.06.022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertiller, M., C. Sain, A. Bisigato, F. Coronato, J. Aries, and P. Graff. 2002. Spatial sex segregation in the dioecious grass Poa ligularis in northern Patagonia: The role of environmental patchiness. Biodiversity and Conservation 11 (1):69–84. doi: 10.1023/A:1014084024145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bierzychudek, P., and V. Eckhart. 1988. Spatial segregation of the sexes of dioecious plants. The American Naturalist 132 (1):34–43. doi: 10.1086/284836.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulton, R. L., T. J. Junt, L. J. Ireland, and J. L. Thomas. 2021. Western Bassian Thrush Zoothera lunulata halmaturina. In The action plan for Australian birds 2020, eds S. T. Garnett and G. B. Baker, 770–3. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Braganza, K., S. Power, B. Trewin, J. Arblaster, B. Timbal, P. Hope, C. Frederiksen, J. McBride, D. Jones, and N. Plummer. 2011. Update on the state of the climate, long-term trends and associated causes. In CAWCR Technical Report No. 306, eds T. Keenan and H. Cleugh, 106. Canberra, Australia: Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research.
   Google Scholar
• Bubb, K. A., Z. H. Xu, J. A. Simpson, and P. G. Saffigna. 1998. Some nutrient dynamics associated with litterfall and litter decomposition in hoop pine plantations of southeast Queensland, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 110 (1–3):343–52. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00295-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau of Meterology. 2017. Climate data online. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/ (accessed June 21, 2022).
   Google Scholar
• Bürli, S., J. R. Pannell, and J. Tonnabel. 2022. Environmental variation in sex ratios and sexual dimorphism in three wind-pollinated dioecious plant species. Oikos 2022 (6):e08651. doi: 10.1111/oik.08651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cepeda-Cornejo, V., and R. Dirzo. 2010. Sex-related differences in reproductive allocation, growth, defense and herbivory in three dioecious neotropical palms. PLOS One 5 (3):e9824–e. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charnov, E. L. 1982. The theory of sex allocation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, K. R., and R. N. Gorley. 2015. PRIMER version 7.0.13 user manual/tutorial. Plymouth, UK: PRIMER-E.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, K. R., R. N. Gorley, P. J. Somerfield, and R. M. Warwick. 2014. Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation. 3rd ed. Ivybridge, UK: PRIMER-E.
   Google Scholar
• Costich, D. E. 1995. Gender specialization across a climatic gradient: Experimental comparison of monoecious and dioecious Ecballium. Ecology 76 (4):1036–50. doi: 10.2307/1940914.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costich, D. E., and T. R. Meagher. 1992. Genetic variation in Ecballium elaterium (Cucurbitaceae): breeding system and geographic distribution. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5 (4):589–601. doi: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1992.5040589.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danley, K., T. Isaksen, N. Gardner, P. Randall-Yoho, and L. Allphin. 2000. Spatial distribution and sexual dimorphism in dioecious Atriplex garettii Rydb. Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Botanical Society of America with Other Affiliated Societies, USA, June.
   Google Scholar
• Darwin, C. 1877. The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species. London: John Murray.
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, T. E., and L. Bliss. 1989. Patterns of water use and the tissue water relations in the dioecious shrub, Salix arctica: The physiological basis for habitat partitioning between the sexes. Oecologia 79 (3):332–43. doi: 10.1007/BF00384312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, T. E., J. K. Ward, and J. R. Ehleringer. 2004. Temporal scaling of physiological responses from gas exchange to tree rings: A gender-specific study of Acer negundo (Boxelder) growing under different conditions. Functional Ecology 18 (2):212–22. doi: 10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00838.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delph, L. F. 2019. Water availability drives population divergence in sex-specific responses in a dioecious plant. American Journal of Botany 106 (10):1346–55. doi: 10.1002/ajb2.1359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz-Barradas, M. C., M. Zunzunegui, M. Collantes, L. Álvarez-Cansino, and F. García Novo. 2014. Gender-related traits in the dioecious shrub Empetrum rubrum in two plant communities in the Magellanic steppe. Acta Oecologica 60:40–8. doi: 10.1016/j.actao.2014.07.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz-Barradas, M. C., M. Zunzunegui, O. Correia, F. Ain-Lhout, M. P. Esquivias, and L. Álvarez-Cansino. 2018. Gender dimorphism in Corema album across its biogeographical area and implications under a scenario of extreme drought events. Environmental and Experimental Botany 155:609–18. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2018.08.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diggle, P. J. 1983. Statistical analysis of spatial point patterns. New York, USA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Draper, J. T., J. G. Conran, B. S. Simpson, and P. Weinstein. 2022a. Sex-linked reproductive allocation in the dioecious shrub Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala (Thymelaeaceae) from four populations across a rainfall gradient. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 147 (1):1–16. doi: 10.1080/03721426.2022.2141875.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draper, J. T., D. Permal, P. Weinstein, and B. S. Simpson. 2022b. Not-so-forbidden fruit: The potential conservation role of toxic Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala fruits for native arid zone birds. Emu – Austral Ornithology 122 (2):131–43. doi: 10.1080/01584197.2022.2092751.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudley, L. S. 2006. Ecological correlates of secondary sexual dimorphism in Salix glauca. American Journal of Botany 93 (12):1775–83. doi: 10.3732/ajb.93.12.1775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Keblawy, A., and D. C. Freeman. 1999. Spatial segregation by gender of the subdioecious shrub Thymelaea hirsuta in the Egyptian desert. International Journal of Plant Sciences 160 (2):341–50. doi: 10.1086/314131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eldridge, D. J., and R. Simpson. 2002. Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) impacts on vegetation and soils, and implications for management of wooded rangelands. Basic and Applied Ecology 3 (1):19–29. doi: 10.1078/1439-1791-00078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eppley, S. M. 2005. Spatial segregation of the sexes and nutrients affect reproductive success in a dioecious wind-pollinated grass. Plant Ecology 181 (2):179–90. doi: 10.1007/s11258-005-6142-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facelli, J. M., and D. J. Brock. 2000. Patch dynamics in arid lands: Localized effects of Acacia papyrocarpa on soils and vegetation of open woodlands of South Australia. Ecography 23 (4):479–91. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0587.2000.230410.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facelli, J. M., and S. T. A. Pickett. 1991. Plant litter: Its dynamics and effects on plant community structure. The Botanical Review 57 (1):1–32. doi: 10.1007/BF02858763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faith, D. 1991. Effective pattern analysis methods for nature conservation. In Nature conservation: cost effective biological surveys and data analysis, eds. C. Margules and M. Austin, 47–53. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.
   Google Scholar
• Field, D. L., M. Pickup, and S. C. H. Barrett. 2013. Ecological context and metapopulation dynamics affect sex-ratio variation among dioecious plant populations. Annals of Botany 111 (5):917–23. doi: 10.1093/aob/mct040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galindo-González, J., S. Guevara, and V. J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and bird-generated seed rains at isolated trees in pastures in a tropical rainforest. Conservation Biology 14 (6):1693–703. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2000.99072.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghadirzadeh-Khorzoghi, E., M. Jannesar, Z. Jahanbakhshian-Davaran, M. Moazzam-Jazi, A. Lotfi, A. Tajabadi Pour, and S. M. Seyedi. 2022. The influence of environmental conditions on sex ratio in a dioecious plant Pistacia vera L. Plant Physiology Reports 27 (1):152–9. doi: 10.1007/s40502-021-00614-z.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, E. E., S. P. Otto, J. C. Vamosi, I. Mayrose, N. Sabath, R. Ming, and T. L. Ashman. 2017. Macroevolutionary synthesis of flowering plant sexual systems. Evolution 71 (4):898–912. doi: 10.1111/evo.13181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerin, G., M. Christmas, B. Sparrow, and A. Lowe. 2018. Projected climate change implications for the South Australian flora. Swainsona 30:25–31.
   Google Scholar
• Guevara, S., and J. Laborde. 1993. Monitoring seed dispersal at isolated standing trees in tropical pastures: Consequences for local species availability. Vegetatio 107–108 (1):319–38. doi: 10.1007/BF00052232.
   Google Scholar
• Guevara, S., S. E. Purata, and E. Van Der Maarel. 1986. The role of remnant forest trees in tropical secondary succession. Vegetatio 66 (2):77–84. doi: 10.1007/BF00045497.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, J. 1985. Peripheral isolation and the origin of diversity in Lepechinia sect, Parviflorae (Lamiaceae). Systematic Botany 10 (2):134–46. doi: 10.2307/2418339.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hastwell, G. T., and J. M. Facelli. 2000. Effects of leaf litter on woody seedlings in xeric successional communities. Plant Ecology 148 (2):225–31. doi: 10.1023/A:1009834425538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hastwell, G. T., and J. M. Facelli. 2003. Differing effects of shade-induced facilitation on growth and survival during the establishment of a chenopod shrub. Journal of Ecology 91 (6):941–50. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00832.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hultine, K. R., S. E. Bush, J. K. Ward, and T. E. Dawson. 2018. Does sexual dimorphism predispose dioecious riparian trees to sex ratio imbalances under climate change? Oecologia 187 (4):921–31. doi: 10.1007/s00442-018-4190-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hultine, K. R., K. C. Grady, T. E. Wood, S. M. Shuster, J. C. Stella, and T. G. Whitham. 2016. Climate change perils for dioecious plant species. Nature Plants 2 (8):16109. doi: 10.1038/nplants.2016.109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iszkuło, G., A. K. Jasińska, A. Romo, D. Tomaszewski, and J. Szmyt. 2011. The greater growth rate of male over female of the dioecious tree Juniperus thurifera only in worse habitat conditions. Dendrobiology 66:15–24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javaid, M. M., S. K. Florentine, H. H. Ali, and B. S. Chauhan. 2018. Environmental factors affecting the germination and emergence of white horehound (Marrubium vulgare L.): A weed of arid-zone areas. The Rangeland Journal 40 (1):47–54. doi: 10.1071/RJ17121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juvany, M., and S. Munné-Bosch. 2015. Sex-related differences in stress tolerance in dioecious plants: A critical appraisal in a physiological context. Journal of Experimental Botany 66 (20):6083–92. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erv343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Käfer, J., G. A. B. Marais, and J. R. Pannell. 2017. On the rarity of dioecy in flowering plants. Molecular Ecology 26 (5):1225–41. doi: 10.1111/mec.14020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanduri, V. P., A. Sukumaran, and C. M. Sharma. 2019. Male-skewed sex ratio in Myrica esculenta: A dioecious tree species. Trees 33 (4):1157–65. doi: 10.1007/s00468-019-01850-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohorn, L. U. 1995. Geographic variation in the occurrence and extent of sexual dimorphism in a dioecious shrub, Simmondsia chinensis. Oikos 74 (1):137–45. doi: 10.2307/3545682.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leigh, A., M. J. Cosgrove, and A. B. Nicotra. 2006. Reproductive allocation in a gender dimorphic shrub: Anomalous female investment in Gynatrix pulchella? Journal of Ecology 94 (6):1261–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01164.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leigh, A., and A. B. Nicotra. 2003. Sexual dimorphism in reproductive allocation and water use efficiency in Maireana pyramidata (Chenopodiaceae), a dioecious, semi-arid shrub. Australian Journal of Botany 51 (5):509–14. doi: 10.1071/BT03043.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, C., J. Ren, J. Luo, and R. Lu. 2004. Sex-specific physiological and growth responses to water stress in Hippophae rhamnoides L. populations. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 26 (2):123–9. doi: 10.1007/s11738-004-0001-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, M., H. Korpelainen, and C. Li. 2021. Sexual differences and sex ratios of dioecious plants under stressful environments. Journal of Plant Ecology (14):920–33. doi: 10.1093/jpe/rtab038.
   Google Scholar
• Lloyd, D., and C. Webb. 1977. Secondary sex characters in plants. The Botanical Review 43 (2):177–216. doi: 10.1007/BF02860717.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd, D. G. 1979. Parental strategies of angiosperms. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17 (4):595–606. doi: 10.1080/0028825X.1979.10432573.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangiafico, S. 2022. rcompanion: Functions to support extension education program evaluation. (R package version 2.4.18). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rcompanion
   Google Scholar
• Martins, A., H. Freitas, and S. Costa. 2017. Corema album: Unbiased dioecy in a competitive environment. Plant Biology 19 (5):824–34. doi: 10.1111/plb.12584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald J. 2015. Fisher’s exact test of independence. In Handbook of Biological Statistics, ed. J. McDonald. Baltimore, Maryland: Sparky House Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• McLellan, R. C., and D. M. Watson. 2022. The living dead: Demography of Australian sandalwood in Australia’s western rangelands. Austral Ecology 47 (8):1685–709. doi: 10.1111/aec.13243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meagher, T. R., and L. F. Delph. 2001. Individual flower demography, floral phenology and floral display size in Silene latifolia. Evolutionary Ecology Research 3:845–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercer, C., and S. Eppley. 2010. Intersexual competition in a dioecious grass. Oecologia 164 (3):657–64. doi: 10.1007/s00442-010-1675-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales, M., M. Oñate, M. B. García, S. Munné‐Bosch, and R. Salguero‐Gómez. 2013. Photo-oxidative stress markers reveal absence of physiological deterioration with ageing in Borderea pyrenaica, an extraordinarily long-lived herb. Journal of Ecology 101 (3):555–65. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12080.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munné-Bosch, S. 2015. Sex ratios in dioecious plants in the framework of global change. Environmental and Experimental Botany 109:99–102. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2014.08.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muyle, A., H. Martin, N. Zemp, M. Mollion, S. Gallina, R. Tavares, A. Silva, T. Bataillon, A. Widmer, S. Glémin, et al. 2021. Dioecy is associated with high genetic diversity and adaptation rates in the plant genus Silene. Molecular Biology and Evolution 38 (3):805–18. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msaa229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicotra, A. B. 1998. Sex ratio variation and spatial distribution of Siparuna grandiflora, a tropical dioecious shrub. Oecologia 115 (1-2):102–13. doi: 10.1007/s004420050496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowak, K., M. J. Giertych, E. Pers-Kamczyc, P. A. Thomas, and G. Iszkuło. 2021. Rich but not poor conditions determine sex‐specific differences in growth rate of juvenile dioecious plants. Journal of Plant Research 134 (5):947–62. doi: 10.1007/s10265-021-01296-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeso, J. R. 2002. The costs of reproduction in plants. The New Phytologist 155 (3):321–48. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00477.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohya, I., S. Nanami, and A. Itoh. 2017. Dioecious plants are more precocious than co-sexual plants: A comparative study of relative sizes at the onset of sexual reproduction in woody species. Ecology and Evolution 7 (15):5660–8. doi: 10.1002/ece3.3117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olano, J. M., N. González-Muñoz, A. Arzac, V. Rozas, G. Von Arx, S. Delzon, and A. I. García-Cervigón. 2017. Sex determines xylem anatomy in a dioecious conifer: Hydraulic consequences in a drier world. Tree Physiology 37 (11):1493–502. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpx066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez-Llorca, M., and J. Sánchez Vilas. 2019. Sexual dimorphism in response to herbivory and competition in the dioecious herb Spinacia oleracea. Plant Ecology 220 (1):57–68. doi: 10.1007/s11258-018-0902-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petry, W. K., J. D. Soule, A. M. Iler, A. Chicas-Mosier, D. W. Inouye, T. E. X. Miller, and K. A. Mooney. 2016. Sex-specific responses to climate change in plants alter population sex ratio and performance. Science 353 (6294):69–71. doi: 10.1126/science.aaf2588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickering, C. M. 2000. Sex-specific differences in floral display and resource allocation in Australian alpine dioecious Aciphylla glacialis (Apiaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 48 (1):81–91. doi: 10.1071/BT97121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purrington, C. B., and J. Schmitt. 1998. Consequences of sexually dimorphic timing of emergence and flowering in Silene latifolia. Journal of Ecology 86 (3):397–404. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00262.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramírez, N. 2022. Sexual and breeding systems in a xerophytic shrubland. Open Journal of Ecology 12 (07):434–82. doi: 10.4236/oje.2022.127025.
   Google Scholar
• Renner, S. S. 2014. The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems: Dioecy, monoecy, gynodioecy, and an updated online database. American Journal of Botany 101 (10):1588–96. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1400196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ripley, B. D. 1981. Spatial statistics. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Robley, A. J., J. Short, and S. Bradley. 2001. Dietary overlap between the burrowing bettong (Bettongia lesueur) and the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in semi-arid coastal Western Australia. Wildlife Research 28 (4):341–9. doi: 10.1071/WR00060.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rye, B., and M. Heads. 1990. Thymelaeaceae. In Flora of Australia, Podostemaceae to Combretaceae, eds. B. Barlow, P. Bridgewater, B. Briggs, R. Carolin, R. Chinnock, H. Eichler, G. et al., Vol. 18, 122–214. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
   Google Scholar
• Sinclair, J. P., J. Emlen, and D. C. Freeman. 2012. Biased sex ratios in plants: Theory and trends. The Botanical Review 78 (1):63–86. doi: 10.1007/s12229-011-9065-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sokal, R. R., and C. Michener. 1958. A statistical method for evaluating systematic relationship. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 38:1409–38.
   Google Scholar
• Soliveres, S., D. J. Eldridge, J. D. Müller, F. Hemmings, and H. L. Throop. 2015. On the interaction between tree canopy position and environmental effects on soil attributes and plant communities. Journal of Vegetation Science 26 (6):1030–42. doi: 10.1111/jvs.12312.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. 2022. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
   Google Scholar
• Tester, M., D. C. Paton, N. Reid, and R. Lange. 1987. Seed dispersal by birds and densities of shrubs under trees in arid South Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 111:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Timerman, D., and S. C. H. Barrett. 2019. The spatial ecology of sex ratios in a dioecious plant: Relations between ramet and genet sex ratios. Journal of Ecology 107 (4):1804–16. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.13128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiver, F., and M. H. Andrew. 1997. Relative effects of herbivory by sheep, rabbits, goats and kangaroos on recruitment and regeneration of shrubs and trees in eastern South Australia. The Journal of Applied Ecology 34 (4):903–14. doi: 10.2307/2405281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tognetti, R. 2012. Adaptation to climate change of dioecious plants: Does gender balance matter? Tree Physiology 32 (11):1321–4. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tps105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tozawa, M., N. Ueno, and K. Seiwa. 2009. Compensatory mechanisms for reproductive costs in the dioeocius tree Salix integra. Botany 87 (3):315–23. doi: 10.1139/B08-125.
   Google Scholar
• Tsuji, K., K. Kobayashi, E. Hasegawa, and J. Yoshimura. 2020. Dimorphic flowers modify the visitation order of pollinators from male to female flowers. Scientific Reports 10 (1):9965. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-66525-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueno, N., and K. Seiwa. 2003. Gender-specific shoot structure and functions in relation to habitat conditions in a dioecious tree, Salix sachalinensis. Journal of Forest Research 8 (1):9–16. doi: 10.1007/s103100300001.
   Google Scholar
• Ueno, N., H. Kanno, and K. Seiwa. 2006. Sexual differences in shoot and leaf dynamics in the dioecious tree Salix sachalinensis. Canadian Journal of Botany 84 (12):1852–9. doi: 10.1139/b06-142.
   Google Scholar
• Vasey, G. L., P. J. Weisberg, and A. K. Urza. 2022. Intraspecific trait variation in a dryland tree species corresponds to regional climate gradients. Journal of Biogeography 49 (12):2309–20. doi: 10.1111/jbi.14515.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vessella, F., A. Salis, M. Scirè, G. Piovesan, and B. Schirone. 2015. Natural regeneration and gender-specific spatial pattern of Taxus baccata in an old-growth population in Foresta Umbra (Italy). Dendrobiology 73:75–90. doi: 10.12657/denbio.073.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., S. J. Mazer, R. P. Freckleton, Z. Yuan, X. Wang, Y. Du, L. Lin, X. Wang, W. Sang, X. Liu, et al. 2019. Testing mechanisms of compensatory fitness of dioecy in a co-sexual world. Journal of Vegetation Science 30 (3):413–26. doi: 10.1111/jvs.12730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, J. K., T. E. Dawson, and J. R. Ehleringer. 2002. Responses of Acer negundo genders to interannual differences in water availability determined from carbon isotope ratios of tree ring cellulose. Tree Physiology 22 (5):339–46. doi: 10.1093/treephys/22.5.339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warton, D. I., R. A. Duursma, A. Remko, D. S. Flaster, and S. Taskinen. 2012. smatr 3 – an R package for estimation and inference about allometric lines. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3 (2):257–9. doi: 10.1111/j.2041-210X.2011.00153.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, A. J., R. McKay, J. A. Vranjic, M. J. Kilby, and R. H. Groves. 2003. Comparative seed ecology of the endangered shrub, Pimelea spicata and a threatening weed, Bridal creeper: Smoke, heat and other fire-related germination cues. Ecological Management & Restoration 4 (1):55–65. doi: 10.1046/j.1442-8903.2003.00131.x.
   Google Scholar
• Yang, G., Q. Xu, W. Li, J. Ling, X. Li, and T. Yin. 2020. Sex-related differences in growth, herbivory, and defense of two Salix species. Forests 11 (4):450. doi: 10.3390/f11040450.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, J., and M. Lechowicz. 1982. Responses to moisture stress in male and female plants of Rumex acetosella L. (Polygonaceae). Oecologia 53 (3):305–9. doi: 10.1007/BF00389005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar