Recent advances in polar low research: current knowledge, challenges and future perspectives

References

• Adakudlu, M. and Barstad, I. 2011. Impacts of the ice-cover and sea-surface temperature on a polar low over the Nordic seas: a numerical case study. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1716–1730. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.856
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akperov, M., Rinke, A., Mokhov, I. I., Matthes, H., Semenov, V. A. and co-authors. 2018. Cyclone activity in the Arctic from an ensemble of regional climate models (Arctic CORDEX). J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 123, 2537–2554. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027703
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albright, M. D., Reed, R. J. and Ovens, D. W. 1995. Origin and structure of a numerically simulated polar low over Hudson Bay. Tellus A 47, 834–848. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v47i5.11578
   Google Scholar
• Aspelien, T., Iversen, T., Bremnes, J. B. and Frogner, I.-L. 2011. Short-range probabilistic forecasts from the Norwegian limited-area EPS: long-term validation and a polar low study. Tellus A 63, 564–584. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2010.00502.x
   Google Scholar
• Blechschmidt, A. M. 2008. A 2‐year climatology of polar low events over the Nordic Seas from satellite remote sensing. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033706
   Google Scholar
• Blechschmidt, A.-M., Bakan, S. and Graßl, H. 2009. Large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns during polar low events over the Nordic seas. J. Geophys. Res. 114.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010865
   Google Scholar
• Bourassa, M. A., Gille, S. T., Bitz, C., Carlson, D. and Cerovecki, I. 2013. High-latitude ocean and sea ice surface fluxes: challenges for climate research. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 94, 403–423. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D11-00244.1
   Google Scholar
• Bracegirdle, T. J. and Gray, S. L. 2008. An objective climatology of the dynamical forcing of polar lows in the Nordic seas. Int. J. Climatol. 28, 1903–1919. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1686
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bracegirdle, T. J. and Gray, S. L. 2009. The dynamics of a polar low assessed using potential vorticity inversion. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 135, 880–893. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.411
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bracegirdle, T. J. and Kolstad, E. W. 2010. Climatology and variability of Southern Hemisphere marine cold-air outbreaks. Tellus A 62, 202–208. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2009.00431.x
   Google Scholar
• Bromwich, D. H., Wilson, A. B., Bai, L., Liu, Z., Barlage, M. and co-authors. 2018. The Arctic system reanalysis, Version 2. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 99, 805–828. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0215.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brümmer, B., Müller, G. and Noer, G. 2009. A polar low pair over the Norwegian Sea. Mon. Weather Rev. 137, 2559–2575. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2864.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Businger, S. 1985. The synoptic climatology of polar low outbreaks. Tellus A 37, 419–432. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v37i5.11686
   Google Scholar
• Businger, S. 1987. The synoptic climatology of polar-low outbreaks over the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. Tellus A 39, 307–325. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v39i4.11762
   Google Scholar
• Businger, S. and Reed, R. J. 1989. Cyclogenesis in cold air masses. Wea. Forecasting 4, 133–156. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1989)004<0133:CICAM>2.0.CO;2
   Google Scholar
• Carleton, A. M. and Carpenter, D. A. 1990. Satellite climatology of ‘polar lows’ and broadscale climatic associations for the Southern Hemisphere. Int. J. Climatol. 10, 219–246. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370100302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casati, B., Haiden, T., Brown, B., Nurmi, P. and Lemieux, J.-F. 2017. Verification of Environmental Prediction in Polar Regions: Recommendations for the Year of Polar Prediction. WWRP 2017 - 1, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
   Google Scholar
• Cavaleri, L., Barbariol, F., Benetazzo, A., Bertotti, L., Bidlot, J.-R. and co-authors. 2016. The Draupner wave: a fresh look and the emerging view. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121, 6061–6075. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC011649
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charney, J. G. and Eliassen, A. 1964. On the growth of the hurricane depression. J. Atmos. Sci. 21, 68–75. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1964)021<0068:OTGOTH>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, F. and von Storch, H. 2013. Trends and variability of North Pacific Polar Lows. Adv. Meteorol. 2013, 1–11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/170387
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claud, C., Dalaudier, F., Kero, J., Le Pichon, A., Hauchecorne, A. and co-authors. 2017. Exploring the signature of polar lows in infrasound: the 19–20 November 2008 cases. Tellus A 69, 1338885. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/16000870.2017.1338885
   Google Scholar
• Claud, C., Duchiron, B. and Terray, P. 2007. Associations between large‐scale atmospheric circulation and polar low developments over the North Atlantic during winter. J. Geophys. Res. 112.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD008251
   Google Scholar
• Claud, C., Funatsu, B. M., Noer, G. and Chaboureau, J. P. 2009. Observation of polar lows by the advanced microwave sounding unit: potential and limitations. Tellus A 61, 264–277. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00384.x
   Google Scholar
• Clément, M., Nikiéma, O. and Laprise, R. 2017. Limited-area atmospheric energetics: illustration on a simulation of the CRCM5 over eastern North America for December 2004. Clim. Dyn. 48, 2797–2818. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3198-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Condron, A. and Renfrew, I. A. 2013. The impact of polar mesoscale storms on northeast Atlantic Ocean circulation. Nature Geosci. 6, 34–37. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, G. C. and Gray, S. L. 1996. CISK or WISHE as the mechanism for tropical cyclone intensification. J. Atmos. Sci. 53, 3528–3540. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<3528:COWATM>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P. and co-authors. 2011. The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 553–597. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle, J. D. and Shapiro, M. A. 1999. Flow response to large-scale topography: the Greenland tip jet. Tellus A 51, 728–748. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v51i5.14471
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, C. N. 1977. A numerical investigation of polar lows. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 103, 255–267. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710343604
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuel, K. A. 1986. An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones. Part I: steady-state maintenance. J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 585–604. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1986)043<0585:AASITF>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuel, K. A. and Rotunno, R. 1989. Polar lows as arctic hurricanes. Tellus A 41, 1–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v41i1.11817
   Google Scholar
• Ese, T., Kanestrø, I. and Pedersen, K. 1988. Climatology of polar lows over the Norwegian and Barents Seas. Tellus A 40, 248–255. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v40i3.11798
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher, J., Mason, S. and Jakob, C. 2016. The climatology, meteorology, and boundary layer structure of marine cold air outbreaks in both hemispheres. J. Clim. 29, 1999–2014. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0268.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Føre, I., Kristjánsson, J. E., Kolstad, E. W., Bracegirdle, T. J., Saetra, Ø. and co-authors. 2012. A ‘hurricane‐like’ polar low fuelled by sensible heat flux: high‐resolution numerical simulations. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 138, 1308–1324. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.1876
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Føre, I., Kristjánsson, J. E., Saetra, Ø., Breivik, Ø., Røsting, B. and co-authors. 2011. The full life cycle of a polar low over the Norwegian Sea observed by three research aircraft flights. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1659–1673. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.825
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Føre, I. and Nordeng, T. E. 2012. A polar low observed over the Norwegian Sea on 3–4 March 2008: high‐resolution numerical experiments. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 138, 1983–1998. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.1930
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsythe, J. M. and Haynes, J. M. 2015. CloudSat observes a Labrador Sea Polar Low. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 96, 1229–1231. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00058.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu, G., Niino, H., Kimura, R. and Kato, T. 2004. A Polar Low over the Japan Sea on 21 January 1997. Mon. Wea. Rev. 132, 1537–1551. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<1537:APLOTJ>2.0.CO;2
   Google Scholar
• Furevik, B. R., Schyberg, H., Noer, G., Tveter, F. and Röhrs, J. 2015. ASAR and ASCAT in Polar Low situations. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 32, 783–792. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00154.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gachon, P., Laprise, R., Zwack, P. and Saucier, F. J. 2003. The effects of interactions between surface forcings in the development of a model-simulated polar low in Hudson Bay. Tellus A 55, 61–87. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v55i1.12079
   Google Scholar
• Garcia-Quintana, Y., Courtois, P., Hu, X., Pennelly, C., Kieke, D. and co-authors. 2019. Sensitivity of Labrador Sea water formation to changes in model resolution, atmospheric forcing, and freshwater input. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 124, 2126–2152. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014459
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelaro, R., McCarty, W., Suárez, M. J., Todling, R. and Molod, A. 2017. The modern-era retrospective analysis for research and applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2). J. Clim. 30, 5419–5454. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0758.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grønås, S. and Kvamstø, N. G. 1995. Numerical simulations of the synoptic conditions and development of Arctic outbreak polar lows. Tellus A 47, 797–814. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v47i5.11576
   Google Scholar
• Gutowski, W. J., Ullrich, P. A., Hall, A., Leung, L. R., O’Brien, T. A. and co-authors. 2020. The ongoing need for high-resolution regional climate models: process understanding and stakeholder information. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 101, E664–E683. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0113.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallerstig, M., Magnusson, L., Kolstad, E. W. and Mayer, S. 2021. How grid-spacing and convection representation affected the wind speed forecasts of four polar lows. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 147, 150–165. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3911
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harold, J. M., Bigg, G. R. and Turner, J. 1999. Mesocyclone activity over the North‐East Atlantic. Part 1: vortex distribution and variability. Int. J. Climatol. 19, 1187–1204. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199909)19:11<1187::AID-JOC419>3.0.CO;2-Q
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrold, T. W. and Browning, K. A. 1969. The polar low as a baroclinic disturbance. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 95, 710–723. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709540605
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinemann, G. and Claud, C. 1997. Report of a workshop on ''theoretical and observational studies of polar lows'' of the European Geophysical Society Polar Lows Working Group. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 2643–2658. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-78.11.2643
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinemann, G., Claud, C. and Spengler, T. 2019. Polar Low workshop. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 100, ES89–ES92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-18-0103.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A. and co-authors. 2020. The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 146, 1999–2049. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschi, J. J.-M., Barnier, B., Böning, C., Biastoch, A., Blaker, A. T. and co-authors. 2020. The Atlantic Meridional overturning circulation in high-resolution models. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 125. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015522
   Google Scholar
• Holton, J. R. and Hakim, G. J. 2013. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Elsevier Inc., San Diego.
   Google Scholar
• Inoue, J., Hori, M. E., Tachibana, Y. and Kikuchi, T. 2010. A polar low embedded in a blocking high over the Pacific Arctic. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043946
   Google Scholar
• IPCC. 2019. Technical Summary. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (eds. H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai and E. Poloczanska).
   Google Scholar
• Irvine, E. A., Gray, S. L. and Methven, J. 2011. Targeted observations of a polar low in the Norwegian Sea. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1688–1699. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.914
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isachsen, P. E., Drivdal, M., Eastwood, S., Gusdal, Y., Noer, G. and co-authors. 2013. Observations of the ocean response to cold air outbreaks and polar lows over the Nordic Seas. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 3667–3671. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50705
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jolliffe, I. T. and Stephenson, D. B. 2012. Forecast Verification a Practitioner's Guide in Atmospheric Science. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.
   Google Scholar
• Jung, T., Gordon, N. D., Bauer, P., Bromwich, D. H., Chevallier, M. and co-authors. 2016. Advancing Polar prediction capabilities on daily to seasonal time scales. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 97, 1631–1647. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00246.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, T. and Heinemann, G. 2002. Interaction of katabatic winds and mesocyclones near the eastern coast of Greenland. Meteorol. Appl. 9, 407–422. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1350482702004036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi, S., Ota, Y., Harada, Y., Ebita, A., Moriya, M. and co-authors. 2015. The JRA-55 reanalysis: general specifications and basic characteristics. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 93, 5–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2015-001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolstad, E. W. 2006. A new climatology of favourable conditions for reverse-shear polar lows. Tellus A 58, 344–354. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2006.00171.x
   Google Scholar
• Kolstad, E. W. and Bracegirdle, T. J. 2017. Sensitivity of an apparently hurricane‐like polar low to sea‐surface temperature. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 143, 966–973. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2980
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolstad, E. W., Bracegirdle, T. J. and Seierstad, I. A. 2009. Marine cold-air outbreaks in the North Atlantic: temporal distribution and associations with large-scale atmospheric circulation. Clim. Dyn. 33, 187–197. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0431-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krinitskiy, M., Verezemskaya, P., Grashchenkov, K., Tilinina, N., Gulev, S. and co-authors. 2018. Deep convolutional neural networks capabilities for binary classification of polar mesocyclones in satellite mosaics. Atmosphere 9, 426. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9110426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristjánsson, J. E., Barstad, I., Aspelien, T., Føre, I., Godøy, Ø. and co-authors. 2011a. The Norwegian IPY–THORPEX: polar lows and Arctic fronts during the 2008 Andøya Campaign. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 92, 1443–1466. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/2011BAMS2901.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristjánsson, J. E., Thorsteinsson, S., Kolstad, E. W. and Blechschmidt, A. M. 2011b. Orographic influence of east Greenland on a polar low over the Denmark Strait. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1773–1789. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.831
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laffineur, T., Claud, C., Chaboureau, J.-P. and Noer, G. 2014. Polar lows over the Nordic Seas: improved representation in ERA-Interim compared to ERA-40 and the impact on downscaled simulations. Mon. Weather Rev. 142, 2271–2289. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-13-00171.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landgren, O. A., Batrak, Y., Haugen, J. E., Støylen, E. and Iversen, T. 2019a. Polar low variability and future projections for the Nordic and Barents Seas. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 145, 3116–3128. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3608
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landgren, O. A., Seierstad, I. A. and Iversen, T. 2019b. Projected future changes in Marine Cold-Air Outbreaks associated with polar lows in the Northern North-Atlantic Ocean. Clim. Dyn. 53, 2573–2585. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-019-04642-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leutwyler, D. and Schär, C. 2019. Barotropic instability of a Cyclone Core at kilometer‐scale resolution. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 11, 3390–3402. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001847
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linders, T. and Saetra, Ø. 2010. Can CAPE maintain polar lows? J. Atmos. Sci. 67, 2559–2571. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAS3131.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Listowski, C., Rojo, M., Claud, C., Delanoë, J., Rysman, J.-F. and co-authors. 2020. New insights into the vertical structure of clouds in Polar Lows, using Radar-Lidar satellite observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088785
   Google Scholar
• Mallet, P.-E., Claud, C., Cassou, C., Noer, G. and Kodera, K. 2013. Polar lows over the Nordic and Labrador Seas: synoptic circulation patterns and associations with North Atlantic-Europe wintertime weather regimes. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118, 2455–2472. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50246
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallet, P.-E., Claud, C. and Vicomte, M. 2017. North Atlantic polar lows and weather regimes: do current links persist in a warmer climate? Atmos. Sci. Lett. 18, 349–355. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.763
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markowski, P. and Richardson, Y. 2010. Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, R. and Moore, G. W. K. 2006. Transition of a synoptic system to a polar low via interaction with the orography of Greenland. Tellus A 58, 236–253. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2005.00169.x
   Google Scholar
• McInnes, H., Kristiansen, J., Kristjánsson, J. E. and Schyberg, H. 2011. The role of horizontal resolution for polar low simulations. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1674–1687. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.849
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel, C., Terpstra, A. and Spengler, T. 2018. Polar mesoscale cyclone climatology for the Nordic Seas based on ERA-interim. J. Clim. 31, 2511–2532. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0890.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery, M. T. and Farrell, B. F. 1992. Polar low dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci. 49, 2484–2505. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1992)049<2484:PLD>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, G. W. K., Reader, M. C., York, J. and Sathiyamoorthy, S. 1996. Polar lows in the Labrador Sea. Tellus A 48, 17–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v48i1.11630
   Google Scholar
• Moore, G. W. K. and Vachon, P. W. 2002. A polar low over The Labrador Sea: interactions with topography and an upper-level potential vorticity anomaly, and an observation by RADARSAT-1 SAR. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 20–1–20-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, R. W. and Vonder Haar, T. H. 2003. Diagnosis of a polar low warm core utilizing the advanced microwave sounding unit. Wea. Forecasting 18, 700–711. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(2003)018<0700:DOAPLW>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata, M. 1993. Meso-β-scale vortices developing along the Japan-Sea polar-airmass convergence zone (JPCZ) cloud band: numerical simulation. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 71, 43–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.71.1_43
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neu, U., Akperov, M. G., Bellenbaum, N., Benestad, R., Blender, R. and co-authors. 2013. Imilast: a community effort to intercompare extratropical cyclone detection and tracking algorithms. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 94, 529–547. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00154.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikiéma, O. and Laprise, R. 2013. An approximate energy cycle for inter-member variability in ensemble simulations of a regional climate model. Clim. Dyn. 41, 831–852. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1575-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noer, G., Saetra, Ø., Lien, T. and Gusdal, Y. 2011. A climatological study of polar lows in the Nordic Seas. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1762–1772. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.846
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norwegian Meteorological Institute. 2013. The Torsvåg storm. http://polarlow.met.no/polar_lows/torsvaag/
   Google Scholar
• Notz, D. and SIMIP Community. 2020. Arctic Sea Ice in CMIP6. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086749
   Google Scholar
• Orimolade, A. P., Furevik, B. R., Noer, G., Gudmestad, O. T. and Samelson, R. M. 2016. Waves in polar lows. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121, 6470–6481. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012086
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orlanski, I. 1975. A rational subdivision of scales for atmospheric processes. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 56, 527–530.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellerin, P., Ritchie, H., Saucier, F. J., Roy, F., Desjardins, S. and co-authors. 2004. Impact of a two-way coupling between an atmospheric and an ocean-ice model over the Gulf of St. Mon. Wea. Rev. 132, 1379–1398. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<1379:IOATCB>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pezza, A., Sadler, K., Uotila, P., Vihma, T., Mesquita, M. D. S. and co-authors. 2016. Southern Hemisphere strong polar mesoscale cyclones in high-resolution datasets. Clim. Dyn. 47, 1647–1660. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2925-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pithan, F., Svensson, G., Caballero, R., Chechin, D., Cronin, T. W. and co-authors. 2018. Role of air-mass transformations in exchange between the Arctic and mid-latitudes. Nat. Geosci. 11, 805–812. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0234-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prein, A. F., Rasmussen, R. and Stephens, G. 2017. Challenges and advances in convection-permitting climate modeling. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 1027–1030. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0263.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radovan, A., Crewell, S., Moster Knudsen, E. and Rinke, A. 2019. Environmental conditions for polar low formation and development over the Nordic Seas: study of January cases based on the Arctic System Reanalysis. Tellus A 71, 1618131. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/16000870.2019.1618131
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, E. 1979. The polar low as an extratropical CISK disturbance. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 105, 531–549. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710544504
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, E. A., Ninomiya, K. and Carleton, A. M. 2003a. Climatology. In: Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions (eds. E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 52–149.
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, E. A. and Turner, J. 2003. Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, E. A., Turner, J., Ninomiya, K. and Renfrew, I. A. 2003b. Observational studies. In: Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions (eds. E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 150–285.
   Google Scholar
• Reed, R. J. and Duncan, C. N. 1987. Baroclinic instability as a mechanism for the serial development of polar lows: a case study. Tellus A 39A, 376–384. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.1987.tb00314.x
   Google Scholar
• Renfrew, I. A. 2003. Polar lows. In: Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences (eds. J. R. Holton, J. A. Curry and J. A. Pyle). Academic Press, Amsterdam, pp. 1761–1768.
   Google Scholar
• Roch, M., Benoit, R. and Parker, N. 1991. Sensitivity experiments for polar low forecasting with the CMC mesoscale finite‐element model. Atmos. Ocean 29, 381–419. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1991.9649410
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojo, M., Claud, C., Mallet, P.-E., Noer, G., Carleton, A. M. and co-authors. 2015. Polar low tracks over the Nordic Seas: a 14-winter climatic analysis. Tellus A 67, 24660. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v67.24660
   Google Scholar
• Rojo, M., Claud, C., Noer, G. and Carleton, A. M. 2019. In situ measurements of surface winds, waves, and sea state in polar lows over the North Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 700–718. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JD028079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero, R. and Emanuel, K. 2017. Climate change and hurricane-like extratropical cyclones: projections for North Atlantic polar lows and medicanes based on CMIP5 models. J. Clim. 30, 279–299. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0255.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saetra, Ø., Linders, T. and Debernard, J. B. 2008. Can polar lows lead to a warming of the ocean surface? Tellus A 60, 141–153. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2007.00279.x
   Google Scholar
• Saha, S., Moorthi, S., Pan, H.-L., Wu, X., Wang, J. and co-authors. 2010. The NCEP climate forecast system reanalysis. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 91, 1015–1058. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS3001.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sardie, J. M. and Warner, T. T. 1985. A numerical study of the development mechanisms of polar lows. Tellus A 37, 460–477. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v37i5.11689
   Google Scholar
• Sergeev, D., Renfrew, I. A. and Spengler, T. 2018. Modification of polar low development by orography and sea ice. Mon. Weather Rev. 146, 3325–3341. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-18-0086.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sergeev, D. and Stepanenko, V. 2014. Idealized Numerical Modeling of Polar Mesocyclones Dynamics Diagnosed by Energy Budget. EGU General Assembly, Vienna.
   Google Scholar
• Sergeev, D. E., Renfrew, I. A., Spengler, T. and Dorling, S. R. 2017. Structure of a shear-line polar low. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 143, 12–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2911
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serreze, M. C. and Barry, R. G. 2011. Processes and impacts of Arctic amplification: a research synthesis. Global Planet. Change 77, 85–96.
   Google Scholar
• Serreze, M. C. and Barry, R. G. 2014. The Arctic Climate System. Cambridge University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Shimada, U., Wada, A., Yamazaki, K. and Kitabatake, N. 2014. Roles of an upper-level cold vortex and low-level baroclinicity in the development of polar lows over the Sea of Japan. Tellus A 66, 24694. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v66.24694
   Google Scholar
• Simmonds, I. and Rudeva, I. 2014. A comparison of tracking methods for extreme cyclones in the Arctic basin. Tellus A 66, 25252. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v66.25252
   Google Scholar
• Smirnova, J. and Golubkin, P. 2017. Comparing polar lows in atmospheric reanalyses: arctic system reanalysis versus ERA-Interim. Mon. Weather Rev. 145, 2375–2383. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0333.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smirnova, J. E., Golubkin, P. A., Bobylev, L. P., Zabolotskikh, E. V. and Chapron, B. 2015. Polar low climatology over the Nordic and Barents seas based on satellite passive microwave data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 5603–5609. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, G. C., Roy, F. and Brasnett, B. 2013. Evaluation of an operational ice–ocean analysis and forecasting system for the Gulf of St Lawrence. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 139, 419–433. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.1982
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spengler, T., Claud, C. and Heinemann, G. 2017. Polar low workshop summary. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 98, ES139–ES142. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0207.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spengler, T., Renfrew, I. A., Terpstra, A., Tjernström, M., Screen, J. and co-authors. 2016. High-latitude dynamics of atmosphere–ice–ocean interactions. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 97, ES179–ES182. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00302.1
   Google Scholar
• Stoll, P. J., Graversen, R. G., Noer, G. and Hodges, K. 2018. An objective global climatology of polar lows based on reanalysis data. Q. J. R Meteorol. Soc. 144, 2099–2117. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3309
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoll, P. J., Valkonen, T. M., Graversen, R. G. and Noer, G. 2020. A well‐observed polar low analysed with a regional and a global weather‐prediction model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 146, 1740–1767. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tansley, C. E. and James, I. N. 1999. Feedbacks between sea ice and baroclinic waves using a linear quasi-geostrophic model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 125, 2517–2534. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712555909
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terpstra, A., Spengler, T. and Moore, R. W. 2015. Idealised simulations of polar low development in an Arctic moist‐baroclinic environment. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 141, 1987–1996. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terpstra, A., Michel, C. and Spengler, T. 2016. Forward and reverse shear environments during polar low genesis over the Northeast Atlantic. Mon. Weather Rev. 144, 1341–1354. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0314.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, J. and Rasmussen, E. A. 2003. Conclusions and future research needs. In: Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions (eds. E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 575–579.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, J., Rasmussen, E. A. and Carleton, A. M. 2003. Introduction. In: Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions (eds. E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–51.
   Google Scholar
• Uppala, S. M., KÅllberg, P. W., Simmons, A. J., Andrae, U., Bechtold, V. D. C. and co-authors. 2005. The ERA-40 re-analysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 131, 2961–3012. doi:https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Delden, A., Rasmussen, E. A., Turner, J. and Røsting, B. 2003. Theoretical investigations. In: Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions (eds. E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 286–404.
   Google Scholar
• van Vuuren, D. P., Edmonds, J., Kainuma, M., Riahi, K., Thomson, A. and co-authors. 2011. The representative concentration pathways: an overview. Clim. Change 109, 5–31., doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0148-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verezemskaya, P., Tilinina, N., Gulev, S., Renfrew, I. A. and Lazzara, M. 2017. Southern Ocean mesocyclones and polar lows from manually tracked satellite mosaics. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 7985–7993. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verezemskaya, P. S. and Stepanenko, V. M. 2016. Numerical simulation of the structure and evolution of a polar mesocyclone over the Kara Sea. Part 1. Model validation and estimation of instability mechanisms. Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol. 41, 425–434. doi:https://doi.org/10.3103/S1068373916060078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, J. S., Gohm, A., Dörnbrack, A. and Schäfler, A. 2011. The mesoscale structure of a polar low: airborne lidar measurements and simulations. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 137, 1516–1531. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.857
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilhelmsen, K. 1985. Climatological study of gale-producing polar lows near Norway. Tellus A 37, 451–459. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v37i5.11688
   Google Scholar
• Wu, L. 2021. Effect of atmosphere-wave-ocean/ice interactions on a polar low simulation over the Barents Sea. Atmos. Res. 248, 105183. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105183
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, L., Martin, J. E. and Petty, G. W. 2011. Piecewise potential vorticity diagnosis of the development of a polar low over the Sea of Japan. Tellus A 63, 198–211. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2011.00511.x
   Google Scholar
• Xia, L., Zahn, M., Hodges, K., Feser, F. and Storch, H. 2012. A comparison of two identification and tracking methods for polar lows. Tellus A 64, 17196. doi:https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.17196
   Google Scholar
• Yanase, W., Fu, G., Niino, H. and Kato, T. 2004. A polar low over the Japan Sea on 21 January 1997. Part II: a numerical study. Mon. Weather Rev 132, 1552–1574. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<1552:APLOTJ>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanase, W. and Niino, H. 2004. Structure and energetics of non-geostrophic non-hydrostatic baroclinic instability wave with and without convective heating. JMSJ. 82, 1261–1279. doi:https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2004.1261
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanase, W. and Niino, H. 2007. Dependence of polar low development on baroclinicity and physical processes: an idealized high-resolution numerical experiment. J. Atmos. Sci. 64, 3044–3067. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS4001.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanase, W., Niino, H., Watanabe, S. I. I., Hodges, K., Zahn, M. and co-authors. 2016. Climatology of polar lows over the Sea of Japan using the JRA-55 reanalysis. J. Clim. 29, 419–437. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0291.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahn, M., Storch, H. V. and Bakan, S. 2008. Climate mode simulation of North Atlantic polar lows in a limited area model. Tellus A 60, 620–631. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00330.x
   Google Scholar
• Zahn, M. and von Storch, H. 2008a. A long‐term climatology of North Atlantic polar lows. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35.doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035769
   Google Scholar
• Zahn, M. and von Storch, H. 2008b. Tracking polar lows in CLM. Metz. 17, 445–453. doi:https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2008/0317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahn, M. and von Storch, H. 2010. Decreased frequency of North Atlantic polar lows associated with future climate warming. Nature 467, 309–312. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zappa, G., Shaffrey, L. and Hodges, K. 2014. Can polar lows be objectively identified and tracked in the ECMWF operational analysis and the ERA-Interim reanalysis? Mon. Weather Rev. 142, 2596–2608. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00064.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, F., Sun, Y. Q., Magnusson, L., Buizza, R., Lin, S.-J. and co-authors. 2019. What is the predictability limit of midlatitude weather? J. Atmos. Sci. 76, 1077–1091. doi:https://doi.org/10.1175/jas-d-18-0269.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar