1,024
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Predicting narcissistic personality traits from brain and psychological features: A supervised machine learning approach

ORCID Icon, , , , , & show all
Pages 257-270 | Received 28 Sep 2022, Published online: 31 Jul 2023

References

  • Al-Anazi, A. F., & Gates, I. D. (2012). Support vector regression to predict porosity and permeability: Effect of sample size. Computers & Geosciences, 39, 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2011.06.011
  • Allroggen, M., Rehmann, P., Schürch, E., Morf, C. C., & Kölch, M. (2018). The relationship between narcissism and personality traits of the five-factor-model in adolescents and young adults. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 46(6), 516–522. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000588
  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.).
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (Vol. 5). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
  • Andrew, J., Cooke, M., & Muncer, S. J. (2008). The relationship between empathy and machiavellianism: An alternative to empathizing–systemizing theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(5), 1203–1211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.014
  • Ashburner, J. (2007). A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm. NeuroImage, 38(1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.07.007
  • Ashton, M. C. (2013). Personality traits and the inventories that measure them. In Individual differences and personality (2nd ed., pp. 27–55). Academic Press, Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416009-5.00002-5
  • Babayan, A., Baczkowski, B., Cozatl, R., Dreyer, M., Engen, H., Erbey, M., Falkiewicz, M., Farrugia, N., Gaebler, M., Golchert, J., Golz, L., Gorgolewski, K., Haueis, P., Huntenburg, J., Jost, R., Kramarenko, Y., Krause, S., Kumral, D., Lauckner, M., … Villringer, A. (2020). MPI-Leipzig_Mind-Brain-Body. OpenNeuro. https://doi.org/10.18112/openneuro.ds000221.v1.0.0
  • Babayan, A., Erbey, M., Kumral, D., Reinelt, J., Reiter, A., Röbbig, J., Schaare, H., Uhlig, M., Anwander, A., & Bazin, P. (2019). A mind-brain-body dataset of MRI, EEG, cognition, emotion, and peripheral physiology in young and old adults. Scientific Data, 6(1), 180308. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.308
  • Baecker, L., Dafflon, J., Da Costa, P. F., Garcia‐Dias, R., Vieira, S., Scarpazza, C., Calhoun, V. D., Sato, J. R., Mechelli, A., & Pinaya, W. H. (2021). Brain age prediction: A comparison between machine learning models using region‐and voxel‐based morphometric data. Human Brain Mapping, 42(8), 2332–2346. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25368
  • Baggio, T., Grecucci, A., Meconi, F., & Messina, I. (2023). Anxious Brains: A Combined Data Fusion Machine Learning Approach to Predict Trait Anxiety from Morphometric Features. Sensors, 23(2), 610. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020610
  • Baskin-Sommers, A., Krusemark, E., & Ronningstam, E. (2014). Empathy in narcissistic personality disorder: From clinical and empirical perspectives. Personality Disorders, 5(3), 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000061
  • Bellman, R. E. (2015). Adaptive Control Processes: A Guided Tour. Princeton University Press.
  • Besser, A., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2011). Pathological forms of narcissism and perceived stress during the transition to the university: The mediating role of humor styles. International Journal of Stress Management, 18(3), 197. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024826
  • Blefari, M. L., Martuzzi, R., Salomon, R., Bello‐Ruiz, J., Herbelin, B., Serino, A., Blanke, O., & Foxe, J. (2017). Bilateral Rolandic operculum processing underlying heartbeat awareness reflects changes in bodily self‐consciousness. European Journal of Neuroscience, 45(10), 1300–1312. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.13567
  • Chester, D. S., Lynam, D. R., Powell, D. K., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Narcissism is associated with weakened frontostriatal connectivity: A DTI study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(7), 1036–1040. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv069
  • Chu, C., Ni, Y., Tan, G., Saunders, C. J., & Ashburner, J. (2011). Kernel regression for fMRI pattern prediction. NeuroImage, 56(2), 662–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.058
  • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2008). The revised neo personality inventory (neo-pi-r). Sage Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849200479.n9
  • Dadomo, H., Grecucci, A., Giardini, I., Ugolini, E., Carmelita, A., & Panzeri, M. (2016). Schema Therapy for Emotional Dysregulation: Theoretical Implication and Clinical Applications. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01987
  • Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Caponcello, D., Carmelita, A., & Grecucci, A. (2018). Schema therapy for emotional dysregulation in personality disorders: A review. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 31(1), 43–49. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000380
  • Dadomo, H., Salvato, G., Lapomarda, G., Ciftci, Z., Messina, I., & Grecucci, A. (2022). Structural Features Predict Sexual Trauma and Interpersonal Problems in Borderline Personality Disorder but Not in Controls: A Multi-Voxel Pattern Analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.773593
  • Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. The Neuroscientist, 13(6), 580–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858407304654
  • De Panfilis, C., Antonucci, C., Meehan, K. B., Cain, N. M., Soliani, A., Marchesi, C., & Sambataro, F. (2019). Facial emotion recognition and social-cognitive correlates of narcissistic features. Journal of Personality Disorders, 33(4), 433–449. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2018_32_350
  • Djerioui, M., Brik, Y., Ladjal, M., & Attallah, B. (2019). Neighborhood component analysis and support vector machines for heart disease prediction. Ingénierie des Systèmes d’Information, 24(6), 591–595. https://doi.org/10.18280/isi.240605
  • Elgeldawi, E., Sayed, A., Galal, A. R., & Zaki, A. M. (2021). Hyperparameter tuning for machine learning algorithms used for Arabic sentiment analysis. Informatics, 8(4), 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics8040079
  • Elhai, J. D., & Montag, C. (2020). The compatibility of theoretical frameworks with machine learning analyses in psychological research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.05.002
  • Fossati, A., Maffei, C., Bagnato, M., Donati, D., Donini, M., Fiorilli, M., & Novella, L. (2000). A psychometric study of DSM-IV passive-aggressive (negativistic) personality disorder criteria. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14(1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2000.14.1.72
  • Gareth, J., Daniela, W., Trevor, H., & Robert, T. (2013). An introduction to statistical learning: With applications in R. Spinger.
  • George, F. R., & Short, D. (2018). The cognitive neuroscience of narcissism. Journal of Brain, Behavior and Cognitive Sciences, 1, ID 6. https://www.imedpub.com/articles/the-cognitive-neuroscience-of-narcissism.php?aid=22149
  • Grecucci, A., Lapomarda, G., Messina, I., Monachesi, B., Sorella, S., & Siugzdaite, R. (2022). Structural features related to affective instability correctly classify patients with borderline personality disorder. A supervised machine learning approach. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 804440–804440. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.804440
  • Grecucci, A., Sorella, S., & Consolini, J. (2023). Decoding individual differences in expressing and suppressing anger from structural brain networks: A supervised machine learning approach. Behavioural Brain Research, 439, 114245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114245
  • Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. J. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression [original research]. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00095
  • Hinton, G. E. (2011). Machine learning for neuroscience. Neural Systems & Circuits, 1(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/2042-1001-1-12
  • Hörz-Sagstetter, S., Diamond, D., Clarkin, J. F., Levy, K. N., Rentrop, M., Fischer-Kern, M., Cain, N. M., & Doering, S. (2018). Clinical characteristics of comorbid narcissistic personality disorder in patients with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 32(4), 562–575. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2017_31_306
  • Jauk, E., & Dieterich, R. (2019). Addiction and the dark triad of personality [Mini review]. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00662
  • Jauk, E., & Kanske, P. (2021). Can neuroscience help to understand narcissism? A systematic review of an emerging field. Personality Neuroscience, 4. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2021.1
  • Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., Webster, G. D., & Schmitt, D. P. (2009). The dark triad: Facilitating a short‐term mating strategy in men. European Journal of Personality, 23(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.698
  • Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the short dark triad (SD3) a brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105
  • Karaali, K., Aytaç, G., Şenol, U., & Sindel, M. (2016). Heschl’s transverse gyri: Anatomy and morphological variations. Akdeniz Tıp Dergisi, 2(3), 149–152. https://doi.org/10.17954/amj.2016.59
  • Kasai, K., Shenton, M. E., Salisbury, D. F., Hirayasu, Y., Onitsuka, T., Spencer, M. H., Yurgelun-Todd, D. A., Kikinis, R., Jolesz, F. A., & McCarley, R. W. (2003). Progressive decrease of left heschl gyrus and planum temporale gray matter volume in first-episode schizophrenia: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 766–775. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.766
  • Kealy, D., Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Rice, S. M., & Oliffe, J. L. (2017). Pathological narcissism and maladaptive self-regulatory behaviours in a nationally representative sample of Canadian men. Psychiatry Research, 256, 156–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.009
  • Kernberg, O. F. (1992). Aggression in personality disorders and perversions. Yale University Press.
  • Khalighinejad, B., Patel, P., Herrero, J. L., Bickel, S., Mehta, A. D., & Mesgarani, N. (2021). Functional characterization of human Heschl's gyrus in response to natural speech. NeuroImage, 235, 118003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118003
  • Kowalchyk, M., Palmieri, H., Conte, E., & Wallisch, P. (2021). Narcissism through the lens of performative self-elevation. Personality and Individual Differences, 177, 110780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110780
  • Kuhl, J., & Kazén, M. (2009). PSSI: Persönlichkeits-Stil-und Störungs-Inventar. Hogrefe.
  • Larson, M., Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Delisi, M. (2015). Narcissism, low self-control, and violence among a nationally representative sample. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(6), 644–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814553097
  • Li, W., Lou, W., Zhang, W., Tong, R. K., Jin, R., & Peng, W. (2023). Gyrus rectus asymmetry predicts trait alexithymia, cognitive empathy, and social function in neurotypical adults. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 33(5), 1941–1954. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac184
  • Li, Y., Zhang, T., Li, W., Zhang, J., Jin, Z., & Li, L. (2020, March). Linking brain structure and activation in anterior insula cortex to explain the trait empathy for pain. Human Brain Mapping, 41(4), 1030–1042. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24858
  • Ma, G., Fan, H., Shen, C., & Wang, W. (2016). Genetic and neuroimaging features of personality disorders: State of the art. Neuroscience Bulletin, 32(3), 286–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12264-016-0027-8
  • Malesza, M., Ostaszewski, P., Büchner, S., & Kaczmarek, M. C. (2019). The adaptation of the short dark triad personality measure – psychometric properties of a German sample. Current Psychology, 38(3), 855–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9662-0
  • Mao, Y., Sang, N., Wang, Y., Hou, X., Huang, H., Wei, D., Zhang, J., & Qiu, J. (2016). Reduced frontal cortex thickness and cortical volume associated with pathological narcissism. Neuroscience, 328, 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.04.025
  • Marek, S., Tervo-Clemmens, B., Calabro, F. J., Montez, D. F., Kay, B. P., Hatoum, A. S., Donohue, M. R., Foran, W., Miller, R. L., Hendrickson, T. J., Malone, S. M., Kandala, S., Feczko, E., Miranda-Dominguez, O., Graham, A. M., Earl, E. A., Perrone, A. J., Cordova, M. … Dosenbach, N. U. F. (2022). Reproducible brain-wide association studies require thousands of individuals. Nature, 603(7902), 654–660. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04492-9
  • Massey-Abernathy, A., & Byrd-Craven, J. (2016). Seeing but not feeling: Machiavellian traits in relation to physiological empathetic responding and life experiences. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 2(3), 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-016-0041-0
  • MATLAB. (2018). 9.4. 0 (R2018a). MathWorks Inc.
  • Mattevi, A., Sorella, S., Vellani, V., Job, R., & Grecucci, A. (2019). Regolare la rabbia: Quale strategia? Uno studio preliminare. [Which strategy for anger regulation? A preliminary investigation of reappraisal and suppression.]. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 46(4), 997–1010.
  • Miller, J. D., Hoffman, B. J., Gaughan, E. T., Gentile, B., Maples, J., & Keith Campbell, W. (2011). Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: A nomological network analysis. Journal of Personality, 79(5), 1013–1042. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x
  • Mitra, P., & Fluyau, D. (2020). Narcissistic personality disorder. StatPearls Publishing.
  • Nataraj, G., Nielsen, J.-F., & Fessler, J. A. (2017). Dictionary-free MRI parameter estimation via Kernel Ridge Regression. In 2017 IEEE 14th International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI 2017), Melbourne, Australia. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISBI39448.2017
  • Nenadic, I., Güllmar, D., Dietzek, M., Langbein, K., Steinke, J., & Gaser, C. (2015). Brain structure in narcissistic personality disorder: A VBM and DTI pilot study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 231(2), 184–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.11.001
  • Nenadić, I., Lorenz, C., & Gaser, C. (2021). Narcissistic personality traits and prefrontal brain structure. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 15707. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94920-z
  • Palmer, B., & Unruh, B., Palmer, B., Unruh, B. (2018). Borderline personality disorder: A case-based approach. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90743-7
  • Papageorgiou, K. A., Gianniou, F.-M., Wilson, P., Moneta, G. B., Bilello, D., & Clough, P. J. (2019). The bright side of dark: Exploring the positive effect of narcissism on perceived stress through mental toughness. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.004
  • Pavanello Decaro, S., DiSarno, M., Anzani, A., DiPierro, R., & Prunas, A. (2021). Narcissistic personality traits and sexual dysfunction in women: The role of body image self-consciousness. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 18(11), 1891–1898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.08.007
  • Persson, B. N., Kajonius, P. J., & Garcia, D. (2019). Revisiting the structure of the short dark triad. Assessment, 26(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117701192
  • Pincus, A. L., & Lukowitsky, M. R. (2010). Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6(1), 421–446. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131215
  • Portugal, L. C., Schrouff, J., Stiffler, R., Bertocci, M., Bebko, G., Chase, H., Lockovitch, J., Aslam, H., Graur, S., Greenberg, T., Pereira, M., Oliveira, L., Phillips, M., & Mourão-Miranda, J. (2019). Predicting anxiety from wholebrain activity patterns to emotional faces in young adults: A machine learning approach. NeuroImage: Clinical, 23, 101813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101813
  • Rodríguez-Pérez, R., & Bajorath, J. (2020). Interpretation of compound activity predictions from complex machine learning models using local approximations and shapley values. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 63(16), 8761–8777. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01101
  • Ronningstam, E. (2011). Narcissistic personality disorder in DSM-V–in support of retaining a significant diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 25(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2011.25.2.248
  • Ronningstam, E. (2012). Alliance building and narcissistic personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(8), 943–953. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21898
  • Ruby, P., & Decety, J. (2004). How would you feel versus how do you think she would feel? A neuroimaging study of perspective-taking with social emotions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(6), 988–999. https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929041502661
  • Sarker, I. H. (2021). Machine learning: Algorithms, real-world applications and research directions. SN Computer Science, 2(3), 160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-021-00592-x
  • Scalabrini, A., Huang, Z., Mucci, C., Perrucci, M. G., Ferretti, A., Fossati, A., Romani, G. L., Northoff, G., & Ebisch, S. J. H. (2017). How spontaneous brain activity and narcissistic features shape social interaction. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 9986–9986. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10389-9
  • Schmahl, C., & Bremner, J. D. (2006). Neuroimaging in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(5), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.08.011
  • Schrouff, J., Rosa, M. J., Rondina, J. M., Marquand, A. F., Chu, C., Ashburner, J., Phillips, C., Richiardi, J., & Mourão-Miranda, J. (2013). PRoNTo: Pattern recognition for neuroimaging toolbox. Neuroinformatics, 11(3), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12021-013-9178-1
  • Schulze, L., Dziobek, I., Vater, A., Heekeren, H. R., Bajbouj, M., Renneberg, B., Heuser, I., & Roepke, S. (2013). Gray matter abnormalities in patients with narcissistic personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47(10), 1363–1369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.017
  • Schulze, L., Schmahl, C., & Niedtfeld, I. (2016). Neural Correlates of Disturbed Emotion Processing in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Multimodal Meta-Analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 79(2), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.03.027
  • Shenton, M. E., Dickey, C. C., Frumin, M., & McCarley, R. W. (2001). A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 49(1–2), 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00163-3
  • Soleimani, M., Pincus, A. L., Alizadeh, H., Mohammadi, A., Nokani, M., Paast, N., Qaderi Bagajan, K., & Tahmasbi, N. (2022). Five‐factor model trait profiles of narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic vulnerability in Iranian university students. International Journal of Psychology, 57(3), 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12833
  • Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Huang, B., Smith, S. M., Ruan, W. J., Pulay, A. J., Saha, T. D., Pickering, R. P., & Grant, B. F. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV narcissistic personality disorder: Results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69(7), 1033–1045. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v69n0701
  • Sutoko, S., Atsumori, H., Obata, A., Funane, T., Kandori, A., Shimonaga, K., & Tsuji, T. (2020). Lesions in the right Rolandic operculum are associated with self-rating affective and apathetic depressive symptoms for post-stroke patients. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 20264. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77136-5
  • Thompson, N. M., Uusberg, A., Gross, J. J., & Chakrabarti, B. (2019). Chapter 12 - Empathy and emotion regulation: An integrative account. In N. Srinivasan (Ed.), Progress in brain research (Vol. 247, pp. 273–304). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.024
  • Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., Landeau, B., Papathanassiou, D., Crivello, F., Etard, O., Delcroix, N., Mazoyer, B., & Joliot, M. (2002). Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain. NeuroImage, 15(1), 273–289. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0978
  • Wang, X., Wen, J., Zhang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2014). Real estate price forecasting based on SVM optimized by PSO. Optik, 125(3), 1439–1443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2013.09.017
  • Wolf, T. G., Speyer, V. F. S., & Peter, B. (2022). “How obsessive are dentists?”––A personality styles & disorder inventory based prospective, controlled study. Journal of Dentistry, 124, 104217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdent.2022.104217
  • Xingpo, L., Muzi, L., Yaozhi, C., Jue, T., & Jinyan, G. (2021). A comprehensive framework for HSPF hydrological parameter sensitivity, optimization and uncertainty evaluation based on SVM surrogate model-A case study in Qinglong River watershed, China. Environmental Modelling & Software, 143, 105126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2021.105126
  • Yager, J., Dubovsky, S. L., & Roy-Byrne, P. P. (2021). Keeping up with the psychiatric literature: A survival guide. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(6), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1159/000517867
  • Yang, W., Wang, K., & Zuo, W. (2012). Neighborhood component feature selection for high-dimensional data. Journal of Computers, 7(1), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.4304/jcp.7.1.161-168
  • Yin, S., & Yin, J. (2016). Tuning kernel parameters for SVM based on expected square distance ratio. Information Sciences, 370, 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2016.07.047
  • Zajenkowski, M., & Szymaniak, K. (2021). Narcissism between facets and domains. The relationships between two types of narcissism and aspects of the big five. Current Psychology, 40(5), 2112–2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-0147-1
  • Zhang, M., Gao, X., Yang, Z., Wen, M., Huang, H., Zheng, R., Wang, W., Wei, Y., Cheng, J., Han, S., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Shared gray matter alterations in subtypes of addiction: A voxel-wise meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology, 238(9), 2365–2379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-021-05920-w

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.