Exploring vaccine hesitancy and acceptance in the general population of Pakistan: Insights into COVID-19-related distress, risk perception, and stigma

References

• Ali I. Rituals of containment: many pandemics, body politics, and social dramas during COVID-19 in Pakistan. Front Sociol. 2021;6:648149. doi:10.3389/fsoc.2021.648149.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Streefland P, Chowdhury AMR, Ramos-Jimenez P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance. Soc Sci Med. 1999;49(12):1705–11. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00239-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairhead J, Leach M. Vaccine anxieties: global science, child health and society. London: Routledge; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Casiday RE. Children’s health and the social theory of risk: insights from the British measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) controversy. Soc Sci Med. 2007;65(5):1059–1070. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.04.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poltorak M, Leach M, Fairhead J, Cassell J. ‘MMR talk’ and vaccination choices: an ethnographic study in Brighton. Soc Sci Med. 2005;61(3):709–19. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobson-West P. Understanding vaccination resistance: moving beyond risk. Health Risk Soc. 2003;5(3):273–283. doi:10.1080/13698570310001606978.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briss P, Shefer A, Rodewald L. Improving vaccine coverage in communities and health care systems: no magic bullets. Am J Prev Med. 2002;23(1):70–1. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00438-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer NT, Chapman GB, Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, McCaul KD, Weinstein ND. Meta-analysis of the relationship between risk perception and health behavior: the example of vaccination. Health Psychol. 2007;26(2):136. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.2.136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock IM, Strecher VJ, Becker MH. The health belief model and HIV risk behavior change. In: DiClemente Ralph J, Peterson John L. Preventing AIDS: Theories and methods of behavioral interventions. New York: Springer; 1994. p. 5–24.
   Google Scholar
• Healy CM, Pickering LK. How to communicate with vaccine-hesitant parents. Pediatrics. 2011;127(Suppl1):S127–S133. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-1722S.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ali I. Culture of vaccine acceptability or resistance: the curious case of Chile’s COVID-19 vaccine rollout and anthropology’s role in increasing vaccination uptake. Vaccine. 2022;13:100272. doi:10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali I, Sadique S, Ali S. COVID-19 and vaccination campaigns as “western plots” in Pakistan: government policies, (geo-) politics, local perceptions, and beliefs. Front Sociol. 2021;6:608979. doi:10.3389/fsoc.2021.608979.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ali I. Impact of COVID-19 on vaccination programs: adverse or positive? Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16(11):2594–600. doi:10.1080/21645515.2020.1787065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. Development and initial validation of the COVID stress scales. J Anxiety Disord. 2020;72:102232. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zigmond AS, Snaith RP. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1983;67(6):361–370. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahangiry L, Sarbakh P, Reihani P, Samei S, Sohrabi Z, Tavousi M, Montazeri A. Developing and validating the risk perceptions and behavioral responses questionnaire for COVID-19 (Risk Precept COVID-19): an application of the extended parallel process model. Res Sq. 2020:1–15. doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-28848/v1.
   Google Scholar
• Upegui-Arango LD, Orozco LC. Estigmahacia la tuberculosis: validación psicométrica de un instrumento para su medición. Anales de la Facultad de Medicina. 2019;80(1):12–20. doi: 10.15381/anales.v80i1.15656.
   Google Scholar
• Cassiani-Miranda CA, Pedrozo-Pupo JC, Campo-Arias A. Post-COVID-19 perceived stigma-discrimination scale: psychometric development and evaluation. Int J Test. 2023;23(1):1–9. doi:10.1080/15305058.2022.2042000.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman D, Loe BS, Chadwick A, Vaccari C, Waite F, Rosebrock L, Jenner L, Petit A, Lewandowsky S, Vanderslott S, COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the UK: the Oxford coronavirus explanations, attitudes, and narratives survey (Oceans) II. Psychol Med. 2022;52(14):3127–3141. doi:10.1017/S0033291720005188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarathchandra D, Navin MC, Largent MA, McCright AM. A survey instrument for measuring vaccine acceptance. Preventivemedicine. Prev Med. 2018;109:1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.01.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brug J, Aro AR, Oenema A, de Zwart O, Richardus JH, Bishop GD. SARS risk perception, knowledge, precautions, and information sources, the Netherlands. Emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(8):1486. doi:10.3201/eid1008.040283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chor JS, Pada SK, Stephenson I, Goggins WB, Tambyah PA, Clarke TW, Medina M, Lee N, Leung TF, Ngai KLK. Seasonal influenza vaccination predicts pandemic H1N1 vaccination up take among healthcare workers in three countries. Vaccine. 2011;29(43):7364–7369. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.07.079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seale H, Heywood AE, McLaws M-L, Ward KF, Lowbridge CP, Van D, MacIntyre CR. Why do I need it? I am not at risk! Public perceptions towards the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 vaccine. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10(1):1–9. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-10-99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Flu Vaccination Coverage, United States, 2018–19 Influenza Season. USA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/fluvaxview/coverage-1819estimates.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Malik AA, McFadden SM, Elharake J, Omer SB. Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in the US. E Clinical Medicine. 2020;26:100495. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100495.
   Google Scholar
• Bendau A, Plag J, Petzold MB, Ströhle A. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and related fears and anxiety. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;97:107724. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caserotti M, Girardi P, Rubaltelli E, Tasso A, Lotto L, Gavaruzzi T. Associations of COVID-19 risk perception with vaccine hesitancy over time for Italian residents. Social Sci Med. 2021;272:113688. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus JV, Ratzan SC, Palayew A, Gostin LO, Larson HJ, Rabin K, Kimball S, El-Mohandes A. A global survey of potential acceptance of a COVID-19 vaccine. Nat Med. 2021;27(2):225–8. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1124-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahin MAH, Hussien RM. Risk perception regarding the COVID-19 outbreak among the general population: a comparative middle East survey. Middle East Curr Psychiatry. 2020;27(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-020-00080-7.
   Google Scholar
• Echoru I, Ajambo PD, Bukenya EM. Acceptance and risk perception of COVID-19 vaccine in Uganda: a cross sectional study in Western Uganda. Res Sq. 2020:1–11. doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-78780/v1.
   Google Scholar
• Janz NK, Becker MH. The health belief model: a decade later. Health Educ & Behav. 1984;11(1):1–47. doi:10.1177/109019818401100101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang JH, Miao YY, Kuo PC. Pandemic influenza H1N1 vaccination intention: Psychosocial determinants and implications from a national survey, Taiwan. Eur J Public Health. 2012;22(6):796–801. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckr167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asnakew Z, Asrese K, Andualem M. Community risk perception and compliance with preventive measures for COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia. Risk Manage Healthcare Policy. 2020;13:2887–97. doi:10.2147/RMHP.S279907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dryhurst S, Schneider CR, Kerr J, Freeman ALJ, Recchia G, van der Bles AM, Spiegelhalter D, van der Linden S. Risk perceptions of COVID-19 around the world. J Risk Res. 2020;23(7–8):994–1006. doi:10.1080/13669877.2020.1758193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarzinger M, Watson V, Arwidson P, Alla F, Luchini S. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in a representative working-age population in France: a survey experiment based on vaccine characteristics. Lancet Public Health. 2021;6(4):e210–e221. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00012-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai FJ, Yang HW, Lin CP, Liu JZ. Acceptability of COVID-19 vaccines and protective behavior among adults in Taiwan: associations between risk perception and willingness to vaccinate against covid-19. Int J Env Res Pub Health. 2021;18(11):5579. doi:10.3390/ijerph18115579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzo C, Gesualdo F, Loconsole D, Pandolfi E, Bella A, Orsi A, Guarona G, Panatto D, Icardi G, Napoli C. Moderate vaccine effectiveness against severe acute respiratory infection caused by a (H1N1) pdm09 influenza virus and no effectiveness against a (H3N2) influenza virus in the 2018/2019 season in Italy. Vaccines. 2020;8(3):427. doi:10.3390/vaccines8030427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartsch SM, O’Shea KJ, Ferguson MC, Bottazzi ME, Wedlock PT, Strych U, McKinnell JA, Siegmund SS, Cox SN, Hotez PJ. Vaccine efficacy needed for a COVID-19 coronavirus vaccine to prevent or stop an epidemic as the sole intervention. Am J Prev Med. 2020;59(4):493–503. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2020.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J. Vaccine designers take first shots at COVID-19. Science. 2020;368(6486):14–16. doi:10.1126/science.368.6486.14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neergaard L, and Fingerhut H. AP-NORC poll: Half of Americans would get a COVID-19 vaccine. New York: Associated Press; 2020 [accessed 2022 May 05].https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-us-news-ap-top-news-politics-virus-outbreak-dacdc8bc428dd4df6511bfa259cfec44.
   Google Scholar
• Barello S, Palamenghi L, Graffigna G. Burnout and somatic symptoms among frontline healthcare professionals at the peak of the Italian COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry Res. 2020;290:113129. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong S, Collins A. Societal responses to familiar versus unfamiliar risk: comparisons of influenza and SARS in Korea. Comput Stud. 2006;26(5):1247–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00812.x.
   Google Scholar
• Setbon M, Raude J. Factors in vaccination intention against the pandemic influenza A/H1N1. Eur J Public Health. 2010;20(5):490–494. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckq054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mereckiene J, Cotter S, Weber JT, Nicoll A, D’Ancona F, Lopalco PL, Johansen K, Wasley AM, Jorgensen P, Lévy-Bruhl D. Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccination policies and coverage in Europe. Eurosurveillance. 2012;17(4). doi: 10.2807/ese.17.04.20064-en.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann BA, Ruiter RAC, Chapman G, Kok G. The intention to get vaccinated against influenza and actual vaccination uptake of Dutch healthcare personnel. Vaccine. 2014;32(51):6986–6991. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.10.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid P, Rauber D, Betsch C, Lidolt G, Denker ML, Cowling BJ. Barriers of Influenza vaccination Intention and behavior – a systematic review of influenza vaccine hesitancy, 2005–2016. PloS One. 2017;12(Issue 1):e0170550. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein ND. Why it won’t happen to me: perceptions of risk factors and susceptibility. Health Psychol. 1984;3(5). doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.3.5.431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freimuth VS, Jamison AM, An J, Hancock GR, Quinn SC. Determinants of trust in the flu vaccine for African Americans and whites. Soc Sci Med. 2017;193:70–79. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.10.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiao S, Tam CC, Li X. Risk exposures, risk perceptions, negative attitudes toward general vaccination, and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among college students in South Carolina. Am J Health Promot. 2022;36(1):175–9. doi:10.1177/08901171211028407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali I, Ali S, Iqbal S. COVID-19 vaccination: concerns about its accessibility, affordability, and acceptability. Front Med. 2021;8:647294. doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.647294.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali I. Contesting measles and vaccination in Pakistan: cultural beliefs, structured vulnerabilities, mistrust, and geo-politics. London: Routledge; 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Ali I. Culture of vaccine acceptability or resistance: the curious case of Chile’s COVID-19 vaccine rollout and anthropology’s role in increasing vaccination uptake. Vaccine: X. 2022;13:100272. doi:10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100272.
   Google Scholar