COVID-19 vaccines: Immune correlates and clinical outcomes

References

• Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin DA, Gulick RM, Martinez FJ, Solomon CG. Severe COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(25):2451–2460. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp2009575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White DB, Lo B. A framework for rationing ventilators and critical care beds during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1773. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.5046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douin DJ, Ward MJ, Lindsell CJ, Howell MP, Hough CL, Exline MC, Gong MN, Aboodi MS, Tenforde MW, Feldstein LR, et al. ICU bed utilization during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in a multistate analysis—March to June 2020. Crit Care Explor. 2021;3(3):e0361. doi:10.1097/CCE.0000000000000361.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dar M, Swamy L, Gavin D, Theodore A. Mechanical-ventilation supply and options for the COVID-19 pandemic. Leveraging all available resources for a limited resource in a crisis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2021;18(3):408–416. doi:10.1513/AnnalsATS.202004-317CME.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, Kotloff K, Frey S, Novak R, Diemert D, Spector SA, Rouphael N, Creech CB, et al. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(5):403–416. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2035389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, Perez JL, Pérez Marc G, Moreira ED, Zerbini C, et al. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(27):2603–2615. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2034577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath PT, Galiza EP, Baxter DN, Boffito M, Browne D, Burns F, Chadwick DR, Clark R, Cosgrove C, Galloway J, et al. Safety and efficacy of NVX-CoV2373 COVID-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(13):1172–1183. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2107659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadoff J, Gray G, Vandebosch A, Cárdenas V, Shukarev G, Grinsztejn B, Goepfert PA, Truyers C, Fennema H, Spiessens B, et al. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(23):2187–2201. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2101544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2023. Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants. [accessed 2023 Dec 26]. https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants
   Google Scholar
• Feikin DR, Higdon MM, Abu-Raddad LJ, Andrews N, Araos R, Goldberg Y, Groome MJ, Huppert A, O’Brien KL, Smith PG, et al. Duration of effectiveness of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease: results of a systematic review and meta-regression. Lancet. 2022;399(10328):924–944. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00152-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu-Raddad LJ, Chemaitelly H, Butt AA, National Study Group for COVID-19 Vaccination. Effectiveness of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(2):187–189. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2104974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinde V, Bhikha S, Hoosain Z, Archary M, Bhorat Q, Fairlie L, Lalloo U, Masilela MSL, Moodley D, Hanley S, et al. Efficacy of NVX-CoV2373 covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.351 variant. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(20):1899–1909. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2103055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iuliano AD, Brunkard JM, Boehmer TK, Peterson E, Adjei S, Binder AM, Cobb S, Graff P, Hidalgo P, Panaggio MJ, et al. Trends in disease severity and health care utilization during the early omicron variant period compared with previous SARS-CoV-2 high transmission periods — United States, December 2020–January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(4):146–52. doi:10.15585/MMWR.MM7104E4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray G, Collie S, Goga A, Garrett N, Champion J, Seocharan I, Bamford L, Moultrie H, Bekker L-G. Effectiveness of Ad26.COV2.S and BNT162b2 vaccines against omicron variant in South Africa. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(23):2243–5. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2202061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tostanoski LH, Yu J, Mercado NB, McMahan K, Jacob-Dolan C, Martinot AJ, Piedra-Mora C, Anioke T, Chang A, Giffin VM, et al. Immunity elicited by natural infection or Ad26.COV2.S vaccination protects hamsters against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Sci Transl Med. 2021;13(618). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abj3789.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahan K, Yu J, Mercado NB, Loos C, Tostanoski LH, Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Peter L, Atyeo C, Zhu A, et al. Correlates of protection against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. Nature. 2020;590(7847):630–4. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03041-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tostanoski LH, Wegmann F, Martinot AJ, Loos C, McMahan K, Mercado NB, Yu J, Chan CN, Bondoc S, Starke CE, et al. Ad26 vaccine protects against SARS-CoV-2 severe clinical disease in hamsters. Nat Med. 2020;26(11):1694–1700. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1070-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert PB, Montefiori DC, McDermott AB, Fong Y, Benkeser D, Deng W, Zhou H, Houchens CR, Martins K, Jayashankar L, et al. Immune correlates analysis of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine efficacy clinical trial. Science. 2022;375(6576):43–50. doi:10.1126/science.abm3425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan M, Yoo SJ, Clijsters M, Backaert W, Vanstapel A, Speleman K, Lietaer C, Choi S, Hether TD, Marcelis L, et al. Visualizing in deceased COVID-19 patients how SARS-CoV-2 attacks the respiratory and olfactory mucosae but spares the olfactory bulb. Cell. 2021;184(24):5932–5949.e15. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He J, Guo Y, Mao R, Zhang J. Proportion of asymptomatic coronavirus disease 2019: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Med Virol. 2021;93(2):820. doi:10.1002/JMV.26326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta OP, Bhandari P, Raut A, Kacimi SEO, Huy NT. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): comprehensive review of clinical presentation. Front Pub Health. 2020;8:582932. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.582932.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KC, Morgan AU, Chaiyachati KH, Asch DA, Xiong RA, Do D, Kilaru AS, Lam D, Parambath A, Friedman AB, et al. Pulse oximetry for monitoring patients with covid-19 at home — a pragmatic, randomized trial. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(19):1857–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2201541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Yin Y, Hu C, Liu X, Zhang X, Zhou S, Jian M, Xu H, Prowle J, Hu B, et al. Clinical course and outcome of 107 patients infected with the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, discharged from two hospitals in Wuhan, China. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):188. doi:10.1186/s13054-020-02895-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, Ferguson ND, Caldwell E, Fan E, Camporota L, Slutsky AS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA. 2012;307(23):2526–33. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.5669.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S, Huang H, Zhang L, Zhou X, Du C, et al. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Int Med. 2020;180(7):934–43. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.0994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamers MM, Haagmans BL. SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2022;20(5):270–284. doi:10.1038/s41579-022-00713-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng M, Karki R, Williams EP, Yang D, Fitzpatrick E, Vogel P, Jonsson CB, Kanneganti T-D. TLR2 senses the SARS-CoV-2 envelope protein to produce inflammatory cytokines. Nat Immunol. 2021;22(7):829–38. doi:10.1038/s41590-021-00937-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovito R, Augello M, Ben-Haim A, Bono V, d’Arminio Monforte A, Marchetti G. Hallmarks of severe COVID-19 pathogenesis: a pas de deux between viral and host factors. Front Immunol. 2022;13:912336. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.912336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, Corneau A, Boussier J, Smith N, Péré H, Charbit B, Bondet V, Chenevier-Gobeaux C, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients. Science. 2020;369(6504):718–724. doi:10.1126/science.abc6027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler CGK, Miao VN, Owings AH, Navia AW, Tang Y, Bromley JD, Lotfy P, Sloan M, Laird H, Williams HB, et al. Impaired local intrinsic immunity to SARS-CoV-2 infection in severe COVID-19. Cell. 2021;184(18):4713–4733.e22. doi:10.1016/J.CELL.2021.07.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang J, Hume AJ, Abo KM, Werder RB, Villacorta-Martin C, Alysandratos K-D, Beermann ML, Simone-Roach C, Lindstrom-Vautrin J, Olejnik J, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection of pluripotent stem Cell-derived Human Lung Alveolar Type 2 cells elicits a rapid epithelial-intrinsic inflammatory response. Cell Stem Cell. 2020;27(6):962–973.e7. doi:10.1016/J.STEM.2020.09.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iba T, Levy JH, Levi M, Thachil J. Coagulopathy in COVID-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(9):2103–2109. doi:10.1111/JTH.14975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carsana L, Sonzogni A, Nasr A, Rossi RS, Pellegrinelli A, Zerbi P, Rech R, Colombo R, Antinori S, Corbellino M, et al. Pulmonary post-mortem findings in a series of COVID-19 cases from northern Italy: a two-centre descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(10):1135–1140. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30434-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delorey TM, Ziegler CGK, Heimberg G, Normand R, Yang Y, Segerstolpe Å, Abbondanza D, Fleming SJ, Subramanian A, Montoro DT, et al. COVID-19 tissue atlases reveal SARS-CoV-2 pathology and cellular targets. Nature. 2021;595(7865):107–113. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03570-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond MS, Kanneganti TD. Innate immunity: the first line of defense against SARS-CoV-2. Nat Immunol. 2022;23(2):165–176. doi:10.1038/s41590-021-01091-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleymenov DA, Bykonia EN, Popova LI, Mazunina EP, Gushchin VA, Kolobukhina LV, Burgasova OA, Kruzhkova IS, Kuznetsova NA, Shidlovskaya EV, et al. A deep look into COVID-19 severity through dynamic changes in blood cytokine levels. Front Immunol. 2021;12:771609. doi:10.3389/FIMMU.2021.771609/BIBTEX.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Biasi S, Meschiari M, Gibellini L, Bellinazzi C, Borella R, Fidanza L, Gozzi L, Iannone A, Lo Tartaro D, Mattioli M,et al. Marked T cell activation, senescence, exhaustion and skewing towards TH17 in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1–17. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17292-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507–513. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Valle DM, Kim-Schulze S, Huang HH, Beckmann ND, Nirenberg S, Wang B, Lavin Y, Swartz TH, Madduri D, Stock A, et al. An inflammatory cytokine signature predicts COVID-19 severity and survival. Nat Med. 2020;26(10):1636–1643. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1051-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salama C, Han J, Yau L, Reiss WG, Kramer B, Neidhart JD, Criner GJ, Kaplan-Lewis E, Baden R, Pandit L, et al. Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with covid-19 pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(1):20–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2030340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The RECOVERY Collaborative Group;Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR, Mafham M, Bell JL, Linsell L, Staplin N, Brightling C, Ustianowski A, Elmahi E, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(8):693–704. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad FB, Cisewski JA, Xu J, Anderson RN. COVID-19 mortality update — United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72(18):493–496. doi:10.15585/MMWR.MM7218A4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID Data tracker; 2023. [accessed 2023 Dec 26]. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker
   Google Scholar
• Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen Y-M, Wang W, Song Z-G, Hu Y, Tao Z-W, Tian J-H, Pei Y-Y, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579(7798):265–269. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai L, Gao GF. Viral targets for vaccines against COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(2):73–82. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-00480-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gebre MS, Brito LA, Tostanoski LH, Edwards DK, Carfi A, Barouch DH. Novel approaches for vaccine development. Cell. 2021;184(6):1589–1603. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard | WHO coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard with vaccination data. [accessed 2023 Nov 12]. https://covid19.who.int/?mapFilter=vaccinations
   Google Scholar
• Hardt K, Vandebosch A, Sadoff J, Le Gars M, Truyers C, Lowson D, Van Dromme I, Vingerhoets J, Kamphuis T, Scheper G, et al. Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of a booster regimen of Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against COVID-19 (ENSEMBLE2): results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(12):1703–1715. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00506-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunkle LM, Kotloff KL, Gay CL, Áñez G, Adelglass JM, Barrat Hernández AQ, Harper WL, Duncanson DM, McArthur MA, et al. Efficacy and safety of NVX-CoV2373 in adults in the United States and Mexico. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(6):531–543. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2116185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier ARY, Yu J, McMahan K, Liu J, Chandrashekar A, Maron JS, Atyeo C, Martinez DR, Ansel JL, Aguayo R, et al. Differential kinetics of immune responses elicited by covid-19 vaccines. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(21):2010–2012. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2115596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barouch DH. Covid-19 vaccines - immunity, variants, boosters. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(11):1011–20. doi:10.1056/NEJMra2206573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahrokhian SH, Tostanoski LH, Jacob-Dolan C, Zahn RC, Wegmann F, McMahan K, Yu J, Gebre MS, Bondzie EA, Wan H, et al. Durability and expansion of neutralizing antibody breadth following Ad26.COV2.S vaccination of mice. NPJ Vaccines. 2022;7(1):1–8. doi:10.1038/s41541-022-00454-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barouch DH, Stephenson KE, Sadoff J, Yu J, Chang A, Gebre M, McMahan K, Liu J, Chandrashekar A, Patel S, et al. Durable humoral and cellular immune responses 8 months after Ad26.COV2.S vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(10):951–953. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2108829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lederer K, Castaño D, Gómez Atria D, Oguin TH, Wang S, Manzoni TB, Muramatsu H, Hogan MJ, Amanat F, Cherubin P, et al. SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines foster potent antigen-specific germinal center responses associated with neutralizing antibody generation. Immunity. 2020;53(6):1281–1295.e5. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.11.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner JS, O’Halloran JA, Kalaidina E, Kim W, Schmitz AJ, Zhou JQ, Lei T, Thapa M, Chen RE, Case JB, et al. SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines induce persistent human germinal centre responses. Nature. 2021;596(7870):109–113. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03738-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havers FP, Patel K, Whitaker M, Milucky J, Reingold A, Armistead I, Meek J, Anderson EJ, Weigel A, Reeg L, et al. Laboratory-confirmed COVID-19–associated hospitalizations among adults during SARS-CoV-2 omicron BA.2 variant predominance — COVID-19–associated hospitalization surveillance network, 14 states, June 20, 2021–May 31, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(34):1085–91. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7134a3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carabelli AM, Peacock TP, Thorne LG, Harvey WT, Hughes J, de Silva TI, Peacock SJ, Barclay WS, de Silva TI, Towers GJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 variant biology: immune escape, transmission and fitness. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21(3):162–177. doi:10.1038/s41579-022-00841-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Arora P, Groß R, Seidel A, Hörnich BF, Hahn AS, Krüger N, Graichen L, Hofmann-Winkler H, Kempf A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 variants B.1.351 and P.1 escape from neutralizing antibodies. Cell. 2021;184(9):2384–2393.e12. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Planas D, Veyer D, Baidaliuk A, Staropoli I, Guivel-Benhassine F, Rajah MM, Planchais C, Porrot F, Robillard N, Puech J, et al. Reduced sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 variant delta to antibody neutralization. Nature. 2021;596(7871):276–280. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03777-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hachmann NP, Miller J, Collier ARY, Ventura JD, Yu J, Rowe M, Bondzie EA, Powers O, Surve N, Hall K, et al. Neutralization escape by SARS-CoV-2 omicron subvariants BA.2.12.1, BA.4, and BA.5. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(1):86–88. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2206576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu J, Collier ARY, Rowe M, Mardas F, Ventura JD, Wan H, Miller J, Powers O, Chung B, Siamatu M, et al. Neutralization of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron BA.1 and BA.2 variants. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(16):1579–1580. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2201849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasrado N, Collier ARY, Miller J, Hachmann, N.P., Liu, J., Sciacca, M., Wu, C., Anand, T., Bondzie, E.A., Fisher, J.L, et al. Waning immunity against XBB.1.5 following bivalent mRNA boosters. bioRxiv. 2023 Jan 23; doi:10.1101/2023.01.22.525079.
   Google Scholar
• Lasrado N, Collier ARY, Hachmann NP, Miller J, Rowe M, Schonberg ED, Rodrigues SL, LaPiana A, Patio RC, Anand T, et al. Neutralization escape by SARS-CoV-2 omicron subvariant BA.2.86. Vaccine. 2023;41(47):6904–9. doi:10.1016/J.VACCINE.2023.10.051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang S, Yu Y, Xu Y, Jian, F, Song, W, Yisimayi, A, Wang, P, Wang, J, Liu, J, Yu, L, et al. Fast evolution of SARS-CoV-2 BA.2·86 to JN.1 under heavy immune pressure. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023. 24(2):e70–e72. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(23)00744-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Food and Drug Administration. Coronavirus (COVID-19) update: FDA authorizes moderna, pfizer-BioNTech bivalent COVID-19 vaccines for use as a booster dose | FDA. [accessed 2023 Nov 13]. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-authorizes-moderna-pfizer-biontech-bivalent-covid-19-vaccines-use
   Google Scholar
• Collier ARY, Miller J, Hachmann NP, McMahan K, Liu J, Bondzie EA, Gallup L, Rowe M, Schonberg E, Thai S, et al. Immunogenicity of BA.5 bivalent mRNA vaccine boosters. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(6):565–567. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2213948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Bowen A, Valdez R, Gherasim C, Gordon A, Liu L, Ho DD. Antibody response to omicron BA.4–BA.5 bivalent booster. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(6):567–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2213907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodda LB, Morawski PA, Pruner KB, Fahning ML, Howard CA, Franko N, Logue J, Eggenberger J, Stokes C, Golez I, et al. Imprinted SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes define hybrid immunity. Cell. 2022;185(9):1588–1601.e14. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin DY, Xu Y, Gu Y, Zeng D, Wheeler B, Young H, Sunny SK, Moore Z. Effectiveness of bivalent boosters against severe omicron infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(8):764–6. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2215471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Food and Drug Administration. FDA takes action on updated mRNA COVID-19 vaccines to better protect against currently circulating variants | FDA. [accessed 2023 Nov 15]. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-takes-action-updated-mrna-covid-19-vaccines-better-protect-against-currently-circulating
   Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Guo Y, Bowen A, Mellis IA, Valdez R, Gherasim C, Gordon A, Liu L, Ho DD., et al. XBB.1.5 monovalent mRNA vaccine booster elicits robust neutralizing antibodies against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. bioRxiv. 2023 Dec 6; 568730. 10.1101/2023.11.26.568730.
   Google Scholar
• Marks PW, Gruppuso PA, Adashi EY. Urgent need for next-generation COVID-19 vaccines. JAMA. 2023;329(1):19. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.22759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks PW, Gruppuso PA, Adashi EY. Defeating SARS-CoV-2 and preparing for the next pandemic. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(9):773–5. doi:10.1056/NEJMp2307867.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havervall S, Marking U, Svensson J, Greilert-Norin N, Bacchus P, Nilsson P, Hober S, Gordon M, Blom K, Klingström J, et al. Anti-spike mucosal IgA protection against SARS-CoV-2 omicron infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(14):1333–1336. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2209651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ssemaganda A, Nguyen HM, Nuhu F, Jahan N, Card CM, Kiazyk S, Severini G, Keynan Y, Su R-C, Ji H, et al. Expansion of cytotoxic tissue-resident CD8+ T cells and CCR6+CD161+ CD4+ T cells in the nasal mucosa following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):1–9. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-30913-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerrieri M, Francavilla B, Fiorelli D, Nuccetelli M, Passali F, Coppeta L, Somma G, Bernardini S, Magrini A, Di Girolamo S, et al. Nasal and salivary mucosal humoral immune response elicited by mRNA BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine compared to SARS-CoV-2 natural infection. Vaccines (Basel). 2021;9(12):1499. doi:10.3390/vaccines9121499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su F, Patel GB, Hu S, Chen W. Induction of mucosal immunity through systemic immunization: phantom or reality? Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2016;12(4):1070–9. doi:10.1080/21645515.2015.1114195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser R, Orta-Resendiz A, Mazein A, Dockrell DH. Upper respiratory tract mucosal immunity for SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Trends Mol Med. 2023;29(4):255–267. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2023.01.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisnewski AV, Campillo Luna J, Redlich CA, Ansari AA. Human IgG and IgA responses to COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. PloS One. 2021;16(6):e0249499. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rakhra K, Abraham W, Wang C, Moynihan KD, Li N, Donahue N, Baldeon AD, Irvine DJ. Exploiting albumin as a mucosal vaccine chaperone for robust generation of lung-resident memory T cells. Science Immunol. 2021;6(57):8003. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abd8003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu T, Hu Y, Lee YT, Bouchard KR, Benechet A, Khanna K, Cauley LS. Lung-resident memory CD8 T cells (TRM) are indispensable for optimal cross-protection against pulmonary virus infection. J Leuk Biol. 2014;95(2):215–24. doi:10.1189/jlb.0313180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ku MW, Bourgine M, Authié P, Lopez J, Nemirov K, Moncoq F, Noirat A, Vesin B, Nevo F, Blanc C, et al. Intranasal vaccination with a lentiviral vector protects against SARS-CoV-2 in preclinical animal models. Cell Host Microbe. 2021;29(2):236–249.e6. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.12.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassan AO, Kafai NM, Dmitriev IP, Fremont DH, Curiel DT, Diamond MS, Chen RE, Winkler ES, Wessel AW, Case JB. A single-dose intranasal ChAd vaccine protects upper and lower respiratory tracts against SARS-CoV-2. Cell. 2020;183:169–84.e13. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu F, Wu S, Yi L, Peng S, Wang F, Si W, Hou L, Zhu T. Safety, mucosal and systemic immunopotency of an aerosolized adenovirus-vectored vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2022;11(1):438–41. doi:10.1080/22221751.2022.2030199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahan K, Wegmann F, Aid M, Sciacca M, Liu J, Hachmann NP, Miller J, Jacob-Dolan C, Powers O, Hope D, et al. Mucosal boosting enhances vaccine protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques. Nature. 2023 Dec 14; 1–3. 10.1038/s41586-023-06951-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afkhami S, D’Agostino MR, Zhang A, Stacey HD, Marzok A, Kang A, Singh R, Bavananthasivam J, Ye G, Luo X, et al. Respiratory mucosal delivery of next-generation COVID-19 vaccine provides robust protection against both ancestral and variant strains of SARS-CoV-2. Cell. 2022;185(5):896–915.e19. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.02.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li JX, Hou LH, Gou JB, Yin Z-D, Wu S-P, Wang F-Z, Zhang Z, Peng Z-H, Zhu T, Shen H-B, et al. Safety, immunogenicity and protection of heterologous boost with an aerosolised Ad5-nCoV after two-dose inactivated COVID-19 vaccines in adults: a multicentre, open-label phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23(10):1143–1152. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(23)00350-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh C, Verma S, Reddy P, Diamond MS, Curiel DT, Patel C, Jain MK, Redkar SV, Bhate AS, Gundappa V, et al. Phase III pivotal comparative clinical trial of intranasal (iNCOVACC) and intramuscular COVID-19 vaccine (Covaxin®). NPJ Vaccines. 2023;8(1):1–9. doi:10.1038/s41541-023-00717-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crotty S. Hybrid immunity. Science. 2021;372(6549):1392–1393. doi:10.1126/science.abj2258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasrado N, Barouch DH. SARS-CoV-2 hybrid immunity: the best of both worlds. J Infect Dis. 2023;228(10):1311–1313. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiad353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koutsakos M, Reynaldi A, Lee WS, Nguyen J, Amarasena T, Taiaroa G, Kinsella P, Liew KC, Tran T, Kent HE, et al. SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection induces rapid memory and de novo T cell responses. Immunity. 2023;56(4):879–892.e4. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2023.02.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamatatos L, Czartoski J, Wan YH, Homad LJ, Rubin V, Glantz H, Neradilek M, Seydoux E, Jennewein MF, MacCamy AJ, et al. mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection. Science. 2021;372(6549):1413–1418. doi:10.1126/science.abg9175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Chandrashekar A, Sellers D, Barrett J, Jacob-Dolan C, Lifton M, McMahan K, Sciacca M, VanWyk H, Wu C, et al. Vaccines elicit highly conserved cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 omicron. Nature. 2022;603(7901):493–496. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04465-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alter G, Yu J, Liu J, Chandrashekar A, Borducchi EN, Tostanoski LH, McMahan K, Jacob-Dolan C, Martinez DR, Chang A, et al. Immunogenicity of Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants in humans. Nature. 2021;596(7871):268–272. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03681-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goel RR, Painter MM, Apostolidis SA, Mathew D, Meng W, Rosenfeld AM, Lundgreen KA, Reynaldi A, Khoury DS, Pattekar A, et al. mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern. Science. 2021;374(6572). doi:10.1126/science.abm0829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keeton R, Tincho MB, Ngomti A, Baguma R, Benede N, Suzuki A, Khan K, Cele S, Bernstein M, Karim F, et al. T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike cross-recognize omicron. Nature. 2022;603(7901):488–492. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04460-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sette A, Crotty S. Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Cell. 2021;184(4):861–880. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geers D, Shamier MC, Bogers S, den Hartog G, Gommers L, Nieuwkoop NN, Schmitz KS, Rijsbergen LC, van Osch JAT, Dijkhuizen E, et al. SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern partially escape humoral but not T-cell responses in COVID-19 convalescent donors and vaccinees. Science Immunol. 2021;6(59):1750. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abj1750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rydyznski Moderbacher C, Ramirez SI, Dan JM, Grifoni A, Hastie KM, Weiskopf D, Belanger S, Abbott RK, Kim C, Choi J, et al. Antigen-specific adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in acute COVID-19 and associations with age and disease severity. Cell. 2020;183(4):996–1012.e19. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbiani DF, Gaebler C, Muecksch F, Lorenzi JCC, Wang Z, Cho A, Agudelo M, Barnes CO, Gazumyan A, Finkin S, et al. Convergent antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in convalescent individuals. Nature. 2020;584(7821):437–442. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2456-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dan JM, Mateus J, Kato Y, Hastie KM, Yu ED, Faliti CE, Grifoni A, Ramirez SI, Haupt S, Frazier A, et al. Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection. Science. 2021;371(6529). doi:10.1126/science.abf4063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Z, Kumanovics A, Love T, Melanson SEF, Meng QH, Wu AHB, Wiencek J, Apple FS, Ondracek CR, Koch DD, et al. T cell responses correlate with Self-reported disease severity and neutralizing antibody responses predict protection against SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection. Viruses. 2023;15(3):709. doi:10.3390/v15030709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu X, Gebo KA, Abraham AG, Habtehyimer F, Patel EU, Laeyendecker O, Gniadek TJ, Fernandez RE, Baker OR, Ram M, et al. Dynamics of inflammatory responses after SARS-CoV-2 infection by vaccination status in the USA: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Microbe. 2023;4(9):e692–e703. doi:10.1016/S2666-5247(23)00171-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu J, Yu J, McMahan K, Jacob-Dolan C, He X, Giffin V, Wu C, Sciacca M, Powers O, Nampanya F, et al. CD8 T cells contribute to vaccine protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques. Science Immunol. 2022;7(77):eabq7647. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abq7647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumari D, Singh S, Kumari M, Gupta H, Chauhan D, Singh K, Rao Eslavath M, Bhushan B, Dogra V, Bargotya M, et al. Flow cytometry profiling of cellular immune response in COVID-19 infected, recovered and vaccinated individuals. Immunobiology. 2023;228(3):152392. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2023.152392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briceño O, Lissina A, Wanke K, Afonso G, Braun A, Ragon K, Miquel T, Gostick E, Papagno L, Stiasny K, et al. Reduced naïve CD 8 + T -cell priming efficacy in elderly adults. Aging Cell. 2016;15(1):14–21. doi:10.1111/acel.12384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qi Q, Liu Y, Cheng Y, Glanville J, Zhang D, Lee J-Y, Olshen RA, Weyand CM, Boyd SD, Goronzy JJ, et al. Diversity and clonal selection in the human T-cell repertoire. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(36):13139–13144. doi:10.1073/pnas.1409155111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen B, Rubinstein R, Gans MD, Deng L, Rubinstein A, Eisenberg R. COVID-19 infection in 10 common variable immunodeficiency patients in New York City. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2021;9(1):504–507.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2020.11.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bange EM, Han NA, Wileyto P, Kim JY, Gouma S, Robinson J, Greenplate AR, Hwee MA, Porterfield F, Owoyemi O, et al. CD8+ T cells contribute to survival in patients with COVID-19 and hematologic cancer. Nat Med. 2021;27(7):1280–1289. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01386-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar