Properties and Behavior of Sexual Life Stages Underlying Dinoflagellate HAB Events of Cyst-Producing Species That Disrupt Fisheries and Aquaculture

References

• Alldredge A, Passow U, Haddock HD. 1998. The characteristics and transparent exopolymer particle (TEP) content of marine snow formed from Thecate dinoflagellates. J Plankton Res. 20(3):393–406. doi: 10.1093/plankt/20.3.393.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DM. 1980. Effects of temperature conditioning on development and germination of Gonyaulax Tamarensis (Dinophyceae) Hypnozygotes. J Phycol.16(2):166–172. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.1980.tb03013.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DM. 1998. Physiology and bloom dynamics of toxic alexandrium species, with emphasis on life cycle transitions. In: Anderson DM, Cembella AD, and Hallegraeff GM, editors. The Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms. Berlin: Springer. p. 29–48.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Hallegraeff GM. 2012. Progress in understanding harmful algal blooms: paradigm shifts and new technologies for research, monitoring, and management. Ann Rev Mar Sci. 4(1):143–176. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081121.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson DM, Chisholm SW, Watras CJ. 1983. Importance of life cycle events in the population dynamics of Gonyaulax tamarensis. Mar Biol. 76(2):179–189. doi: 10.1007/BF00392734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DM, Kulis DM, Sullivan JJ, Hall S. 1990. Toxin composition variations in one isolate of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense. Toxicon. 28(8):885–893. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(90)90018-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DM, Lindquist NL. 1985. Time-course measurements of phosphorus depletion and cyst formation in the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax tamarensis. J Exp. Mar Biol Ecol. 86(1):1–13. doi: 10.1016/0022-0981(85)90039-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DM, Taylor CD, Armbrust EV. 1987. The effects of darkness and anaerobiosis on dinoflagellate cyst germination. Limnol and Oceanogr. 32(2):340–351. doi: 10.4319/lo.1987.32.2.0340.
   Google Scholar
• Bardouil M, Bohec M, Cormerais M, Bougrier S, Lassus P. 1993. Experimental study of the effects of a toxic micro-algal diet on feeding of the Oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg). J Shellfish Res 12:417–422.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder BJ, Anderson DM. 1990. Biochemical composition and metabolic activity of Scrippsiella trochoidea (Dinophyceae) resting cysts. J Phycol. 26(2):289–298. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1990.00289.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brosnahan ML, Velo-Suárez L, Ralston DK, Fox SE, Sehein TR, Shalapyonok A, Sosik HM, Olson RJ, Anderson DM. 2015. Rapid growth and concerted sexual transitions by a bloom of the harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense (Dinophyceae). Limnol Oceanogr. 60(6):2059–2078. doi: 10.1002/lno.10155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camacho FG, Gallardo Rodríguez JJ, Sánchez Mirón A, Belarbi EH, Chisti Y, Molina Grima E. 2011. Photobioreactor scale-up for a shear-sensitive dinoflagellate microalga. Process Biochem. 46(4):936–944. doi: 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.01.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatton E. 1952. Classe Des Dinoflagelles Ou Peridiniens. In: Grassé P-P, editors. Traite de Zoologie I. Paris: Masson. p. 309–406.
   Google Scholar
• Chesnick JM, Cox ER. 1989. Fertilization and zygote development in the Binucleate Dinoflagellate Peridinium Balticum (Pyrrhophyta). American J Bot. 76(7):1060–1072. doi: 10.1002/j.1537-2197.1989.tb15087.x.
   Google Scholar
• Chislock MF, Doster E, Zitomer RA, Wilson AE. 2013. Eutrophication: causes, consequences, and controls in aquatic ecosystems. Nat Educ Knowledge. 4(4):10.
   Google Scholar
• Coats DW, Tyler MA, Anderson DM. 1984. Sexual processes in the life cycle of Gyrodinium uncatenum (Dinophyceae): A morphogenetic overview. J Phycol. 20(3):351–361. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1984.00351.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale B. 1983. Dinoflagellate resting cysts: benthic plankton. In: Fryxell GA, editor. Survival strategies of the algae. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 69–136.
   Google Scholar
• Doblin MA, Thompson PA, Revill AT, Butler ECV, Blackburn SI, Hallegraeff GM. 2006. Vertical migration of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum under different concentrations of nutrients and humic substances in culture. Harmful Algae. 5(6):665–677. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2006.02.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durham WM, Climent E, Barry M, De Lillo F, Boffetta G, Cencini M, Stocker R. 2013. Turbulence drives microscale patches of motile phytoplankton. Nat Commun. 4(1):2148. doi: 10.1038/ncomms3148.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durham WM, Stocker R. 2012. Thin phytoplankton layers: characteristics, mechanisms, and consequences. Ann Rev Mar Sci. 4(1):177–207. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-120710-100957.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Epand RM. 2000. Membrane fusion. Biosci Rep. 20(6):435–441. doi: 10.1023/a:1010498618600.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faust MA, Gulledge RA. 2002. Identifying harmful marine dinoflagellates. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. 42(1):144.
   Google Scholar
• Fenchel T. 2005. Cosmopolitan microbes and their ‘cryptic’ species. Aquat Microb Ecol. 41(1):49–54. doi: 10.3354/ame041049.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenchel T, Finlay BJ. 2004. The ubiquity of small species: Patterns of local and global diversity. BioScience 54(8):777–784. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0777:TUOSSP]2.0.CO;2.2.0.CO;2]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueroa RI, Bravo I. 2005. Sexual reproduction and two different encystment strategies of Lingulodinium polyedrum (Dinophyceae) in culture. J Phycol. 41(2):370–379. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.04150.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueroa RI, Bravo I, Garcés E. 2006. Multiple routes of sexuality in Alexandrium taylori (Dinophyceae) in culture. J Phycol. 42 (5):1028–1039. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00262.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueroa RI, Bravo I, Garcés E, Ramilo I. 2006. Nuclear features and effect of nutrients on Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) sexual stages. J Phycol. 42(1):67–77. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00181.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueroa RI, Rengefors K, Bravo I, Bensch S. 2010. From homothally to heterothally: mating preferences and genetic variation within clones of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Deep-Sea Res. II: Topical Stud Oceanography. 57(3–4):190–198. doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2009.09.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueroa RI, Vázquez JA, Massanet A, Murado MA, Bravo I. 2011. Interactive effects of salinity and temperature on planozygote and cyst formation of Alexandrium minutum (Dinophyceae) in culture. J Phycol. 47(1):13–24. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2010.00937.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filho ADSF, da Costa SM, Ribeiro MGL, Azevedo SMFO. 2008. Effects of a saxitoxin-producer strain of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) on the swimming movements of cladocerans. Environ Toxicol. 23(2):161–168. doi: 10.1002/tox.20320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer AD, Brosnahan ML, Anderson DM. 2018. Quantitative response of Alexandrium catenella cyst dormancy to cold exposure. Protist. 169(5):645–661. doi: 10.1016/j.protis.2018.06.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn KJ, Flynn K. 1995. Dinoflagellate physiology: nutrient stress and toxicity. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard-Le Denn E, Gentien P, Marcaillou-Le Baut C, editors. Harmful marine algal blooms. Paris: Lavoisier Publishing. p. 541–550.
   Google Scholar
• Flynn K, Franco J, Fernández P, Reguera B, Zapata M, Flynn KJ. 1995. Nitrogen and phosphorus limitation in cultured Alexandrium minutum halim does not promote toxin production. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard-Le Denn E, Gentien P, Marcaillou-Le Baut C, editors. Harmful Marine Algal Blooms. Paris: Lavoisier Publishing. p. 439–444.
   Google Scholar
• Franks PJS. 1997. Spatial patterns in dense algal blooms. Limnol Oceanogr. 42(5part2):1297–1305. doi: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.5_part_2.1297.
   Google Scholar
• Fritz L, Anderson DM, Triemer RE. 1989. Ultrastructural aspects of sexual reproduction in the red tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax tamarensis. J Phycol. 25(1):95–107. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1989.00095.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fux E, Bire R, Hess P. 2009. Comparative accumulation and composition of lipophilic marine biotoxins in passive samplers and in mussels (M. Edulis) on the West Coast of Ireland. Harmful Algae. 8(3):523–537. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2008.10.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fux E, Marcaillou C, Mondeguer F, Bire R, Hess P. 2008. Field and mesocosm trials on passive sampling for the study of adsorption and desorption behaviour of lipophilic toxins with a focus on OA and DTX1. Harmful Algae. 7(5):574–583. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2007.12.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallardo-Rodríguez JJ, López-Rosales L, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Molina-Grima E, Chalmers JJ. 2016. New insights into shear-sensitivity in Dinoflagellate Microalgae. Bioresour Technol. 200:699–705. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.10.105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gentien P, Lunven M, Lazure P, Youenou A, Crassous MP. 2007. Motility and autotoxicity in Karenia Mikimotoi (Dinophyceae). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 362(1487):1937–1946. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glibert P, Burford M, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science 2017. Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms: recent advances, new paradigms, and continuing challenges. Oceanog. 30(1):58–69. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2017.110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallegraeff GM, McCausland MA, Brown RK. 1995. Early warning of toxic dinoflagellate blooms of Gymnodinium catenatum in southern Tasmanian Waters. J Plankton Res. 17(6):1163–1176. doi: 10.1093/plankt/17.6.1163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamasaki K, Takahashi T, Uye SI. 2003. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in planktonic copepods during a bloom of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense in Hiroshima Bay, Western Japan. Marine Biol. 143(5):981–988. doi: 10.1007/s00227-003-1131-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris GP. 1986. Phytoplankton ecology. Structure function and fluctuation. London: Chapman and Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Head MJ. 1996. Modern dinoflagellate cysts and their biological affinities. In: Jansonius, Mcgregor DC, editors. Palynology: Principles and applications. Dallas (TX): American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Heil C. 2005. Influence of humic, fulvic and hydrophilic acids on the growth, photosynthesis and respiration of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum minimum (Pavillard) schiller. Harmful Algae.4(3):603–618. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2004.08.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishikawa A, Taniguchi A. 1997. In situ germination patterns of cysts, and bloom formation of some armored dinoflagellates in Onagawa Bay, North-East Japan. J Plankton Res. 19(11):1783–1791. doi: 10.1093/plankt/19.11.1783.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janowitz GS, Kamykowski D. 2006. Modeled karenia brevis accumulation in the vicinity of a coastal nutrient front. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 314(1):49–59. doi: 10.3354/meps314049.
   Google Scholar
• Jeong HJ, Du Yoo Y, Kim JS, Seong KA, Kang NS, Kim TH. 2010. Growth, feeding and ecological roles of the mixotrophic and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in marine planktonic food webs. Ocean Sci J. 45(2):65–91. doi: 10.1007/s12601-010-0007-2.
   Google Scholar
• Kamykowski D, Reed RE, Kirkpatrick GJ. 1992. Comparison of sinking velocity, swimming velocity, rotation and path characteristics among six marine dinoflagellate species. Mar Biol. 113(2):319–328. doi: 10.1007/BF00347287.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal N, Newcombe G, Ho L. 2008. investigating the fate of saxitoxins in biologically active water treatment plant filters. Environ Toxicol. 23(6):751–755. doi: 10.1002/tox.20384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim CJ, Chang HK, Sako Y. 2005. Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin analysis of the genus Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) occurring in Korean coastal waters. Fisheries Sci. 71(1):1–11. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.00924.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latz MI, Jeong HJ. 1996. Effect of red tide dinoflagellate diet and cannibalism on the bioluminescence of the heterotrophic Dinoflagellates protoperidinium spp. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 132:275–285. doi: 10.3354/meps132275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefebvre KA, Bill BD, Erickson A, Baugh KA, O'Rourke L, Costa PR, Nance S, Trainer VL. 2008. Characterization of intracellular and extracellular saxitoxin levels in both field and cultured Alexandrium spp. samples from Sequim Bay, Washington. Mar Drugs. 6(2):103–116. doi: 10.3390/md20080006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levandowsky M, Kaneta PJ. 1987. Behavior in dinoflagellates. In: Taylor FJR, editor. The biology of dinoflagellates. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 360–397.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis J. 2001. Data on encystment and excystment rates in dinoflagellates. In: Garcés B, Zingone E, Montresor A, Reguera M, Dale B, editors. lifehab life histories of microalgal species causing harmful blooms. Calvia, Spain: European Commission Directorate General, Science, Research and Development. p. 49–52.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis J, Harris ASD, Jones KJ, Edmonds RL. 1999. Long-term survival of marine planktonic diatoms and dinofiagellates in stored sediment samples. J Plankton Res. 21(2):343–354. doi: 10.1093/plankt/21.2.343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li AMY. 2004. Uptake Kinetics and biotransformation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in Perna viridis. City University of Hong Kong.
   Google Scholar
• Long M, Peltekis A, González-Fernández C, Hégaret H, Bailleul B. 2021. Allelochemicals of Alexandrium minutum: kinetics of membrane disruption and photosynthesis inhibition in a co-occurring diatom. Harmful Algae. 103:101997. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundholm N, Ribeiro S, Andersen TJ, Koch T, Godhe A, Ekelund F, Ellegaard M. 2011. Buried alive – germination of up to a century-old marine protist resting stages. Phycologia. 50(6):629–640. doi: 10.2216/11-16.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacIntyre JG, Cullen JJ, Cembella AD. 1997. Vertical migration, nutrition and toxicity in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 148(1/3):201–216. doi: 10.3354/meps148201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKenzie L, Beuzenberg V, Holland P, McNabb P, Selwood A. 2004. Solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT): a new monitoring tool that simulates the biotoxin contamination of filter feeding bivalves. Toxicon. 44(8):901–918. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.08.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malone TC, Newton A. 2020. The globalization of cultural eutrophication in the coastal ocean: causes and consequences. Front Mar Sci. 7:1–21. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin JL, LeGresley MM, Hanke AR. 2014. Thirty years – Alexandrium fundyense cyst, bloom dynamics and shellfish toxicity in the Bay of Fundy, Eastern Canada. Deep-Sea Res II: Topical Stud Oceanography. 103:27–39. doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.08.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGillicuddy DJ, Brosnahan ML, Couture DA, He R, Keafer BA, Manning JP, Martin JL, Pilskaln CH, Townsend DW, Anderson DM. 2014. A red tide of Alexandrium Fundyense in the Gulf of Maine. Deep Sea Res 2 Top Stud Oceanogr. 103:174–184. doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.05.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean TI. 2013. Eco-omics: a review of the application of genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics for the study of the ecology of harmful algae. Microb Ecol. 65(4):901–915. doi: 10.1007/s00248-013-0220-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montresor M, Montesarchio E, Marino D, Zingone A. 1994. Calcarous dinoflagellate cysts in marine sediments of the Gulf of Naples (Mediterranean Sea). Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 84(1–2):45–56. doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(94)90040-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olli K. 2001. High encystment of a dinoflagellate in batch culture. In: Garcés E, Zingone A, Montresor M, Reguera B, Dale B, editors. LIFEHAB life histories of microalgal species causing harmful blooms. Calviá, Spain: European Commision Directorate General, Science, Research and Development. p. 53–56.
   Google Scholar
• Olli K, Anderson DM. 2002. High encystment success of the Dinoflagellate Scrippsiella Cf. Lachrymosa in culture experiments. J Phycol. 38(1):145–156. doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.01113.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peperzak L. 2006. Below the Kolmogorov scale: the non-turbulent sex life of phytoplankton. Afr J Mar Sci. 28(2):261–264. doi: 10.2989/18142320609504159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A. 2000. Possible predation of cysts – a gap in the knowledge of dinoflagellate ecology? J Plankton Res. 22(4):803–809. doi: 10.1093/plankt/22.4.803.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A. 2001. Proliferation of cryptic protists and ­germination of resting stages from untreated sediment samples with emphasis on dinoflagellates. Ophelia 55(3):151–166. doi: 10.1080/00785326.2001.10409482.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Godhe A, Karlson B. 2000. Dinoflagellate cysts in recent sediments from the West Coast of Sweden. Bot Mar. 43(1):69–79. doi: 10.1515/BOT.2000.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Rosenberg R. 2003. Impact of grazing and bioturbation of marine benthic deposit feeders on dinoflagellate cysts. Harmful Algae. 2(1):43–50. doi: 10.1016/S1568-9883(03)00003-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC. 2009a. Consumption of Scrippsiella lachrymosa resting cysts by the eastern oyster (Crassostrea Virginica). J Shellfish Res. 28(2):221–225. doi: 10.2983/035.028.0227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC. 2009b. Grazing on a natural assemblage of ciliate and dinoflagellate cysts by the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Aquat Biol. 6(1–3):227–233. doi: 10.3354/ab00129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC. 2013. Cell density-dependent swimming patterns of Alexandrium fundyense early stationary phase cells. Aquat Microb Ecol. 68(3):251–258. doi: 10.3354/ame01617.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC. 2022. Preservation of dinoflagellate cysts in different oxygen regimes: differences in cyst survival between oxic and anoxic natural environments. Phycology 2(4):384–418. doi: 10.3390/phycology2040022.
   Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Alix JH, Li Y, Holohan BA, Wikfors GH. 2021. Differences in specific mass density between dinoflagellate life stages and relevance to accumulation by hydrodynamic processes. J Phycol. 57(5):1492–1503. doi: 10.1111/jpy.13181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Alix JH, Senft-Batoh C, Wikfors GH. 2012. Toxin content differs between life stages of Alexandrium fundyense (Dinophyceae). Harmful Algae. 19:101–107. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2012.06.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Cyronak T, Cooper E, Ditullio GR. 2016. Differences in pigmentation between life cycle stages in Scrippsiella lachrymosa (Dinophyceae). J Phycol. 52(1):64–74. doi: 10.1111/jpy.12364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Morton S, Shuler A, Wikfors GH. 2013a. Sexual life stages and temperature dependent morphological changes allow cryptic occurrence of the florida red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Harmful Algae. 30:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2013.08.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Wikfors GH, Alix JH. 2008. Dinoflagellate gamete formation and environmental cues: observations, theory, and synthesis. Harmful Algae. 7(6):798–801. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2008.04.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Wikfors GH, Alix JH. 2013b. Differences in swimming pattern between life cycle stages of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense. Harmful Algae. 21–22:36–43. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2012.11.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson A, Smith BC, Wikfors GH, Quilliam M. 2006. Grazing on toxic Alexandrium fundyense resting cysts and vegetative cells by the eastern oyster (Crassostrea Virginica). Harmful Algae. 5(6):678–684. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2006.02.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Probert I. 2001. The induction of sexual reproduction in dinoflagellates: culture studies and field surveys. In: Garcés E, Zingone A, Montresor M, Reguera B, Dale B, editors. LIFEHAB life histories of microalgal species causing harmful blooms. Calvia, Spain: European Commision Directorate General, Science, Research and Development. p. 57–59.
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen J, Richardson K. 1989. Response of Gonyaulax tamarensis to the presence of a pycnocline in an artificial water column. J Plankton Res. 11(4):747–762. − doi: 10.1093/plankt/11.4.747.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rausch de Traubenberg C, Morlaix M. 1995. Evidence of okadaic acid release into extracellular medium in cultures of Prorocentrum lima (ehrenberg) dodge. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard E, Gentien P, Marcaillou C, editors. Harmful marine algal blooms. Paris: Lavoisier. p. 493–498.
   Google Scholar
• Reid CR, Boalch GT. 1987. A new method for the identification of dinoflagellate cysts. J Plankton Res. 9(1):249–253. doi: 10.1093/plankt/9.1.249.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selander E, Jakobsen HH, Lombard F, Kiørboe T. 2011. Grazer cues induce stealth behavior in marine dinoflagellates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 108(10):4030–4034. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1011870108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks A, Walters K. 1996. Feeding by a heterotrophic dinoflagellate (Noctiluca Scintillans) in marine snow. Limnol Oceanogr. 41(1):177–181. doi: 10.4319/lo.1996.41.1.0177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva ES, Faust MA. 1995. Small cells in the life history of dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae): a review. Phycologia. 34(5):396–408. doi: 10.2216/i0031-8884-34-5-396.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smayda TJ. 2002. Adaptative ecology, growth strategies and the global bloom expansion of dinoflagellates. J Oceanogr. 58(2):281–294. doi: 10.1023/A:1015861725470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smayda TJ, Trainer VL. 2010. Dinoflagellate blooms in upwelling systems: seeding, variability, and contrasts with diatom bloom behaviour. Prog Oceanogr. 85(1–2):92–107. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2010.02.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smayda TJ. 2010. Adaptations and selection of harmful and other dinoflagellate species in upwelling systems. 2. Motility and migratory behaviour. Prog Oceanogr. 85(1–2):71–91. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2010.02.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith BC, Persson A. 2004. Dinoflagellate cyst production in one-liter containers. J Appl Phycol. 16(5):401–405. doi: 10.1023/B:JAPH.0000047951.72497.53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith BC, Persson A. 2005. Synchronization of encystment of Scrippsiella lachrymosa (Dinophyta). J Appl Phycol. 17(4):317–321. doi: 10.1007/s10811-005-4944-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith BC, Persson A, Alix JH. 2023. Dinoflagellate cell density limits explored using Scrippsiella lachrymosa cultured in flow-through cages. J Appl Phycol. 35(2):613–623. doi: 10.1007/s10811-023-02910-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith BC, Persson A, Selander E, Wikfors GH, Alix J. 2011. Toxin profile change in vegetative cells and pellicle cysts of Alexandrium Fundyense after gut passage in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Aquat Biol. 13(2):193–201. doi: 10.3354/ab00362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith BC, Persson A, Wikfors GH. 2009. A particle separator used to concentrate dinoflagellate cysts from sediment. Limnol Oceanogr Methods. 7(7):521–526. doi: 10.4319/lom.2009.7.521.
   Google Scholar
• Spear AH, Daly K, Huffman D, Garcia-Rubio L. 2009. Progress in developing a new detection method for the harmful algal bloom species, Karenia brevis, through multiwavelength spectroscopy. Harmful Algae. 8(2):189–195. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2008.05.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steidinger KA, Tangen K. 1996. Dinoflagellates. In: Tomas CR, editor. Identifying marine diatoms and dinoflagellates. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 387–584.
   Google Scholar
• Sweeney BM. 1951. Culture of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium with soil extract. American J Bot. 38(9):669–677. doi: 10.1002/j.1537-2197.1951.tb14877.x.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor FJR, Pollinger U. 1987. Ecology of dinoflagellates. In Taylor FJR, editor. The biology of dinoflagellates, botanical monographs, Vol. 21. Palo Alto: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 399–502.
   Google Scholar
• Tillmann U, John U, Cembella A. 2007. On the allelochemical potency of the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii against heterotrophic and autotrophic protists. J Plankton Res. 29(6):527–543. doi: 10.1093/plankt/fbm034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler MA, Coats DW, Anderson DM. 1982. Encystment in a dynamic environment: deposition of dinoflagellate cysts by a frontal convergence. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 7:163–178. doi: 10.3354/meps007163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchida T. 2001. The role of cell contact in the life cycle of some dinoflagellate species. J Plankton Res. 23(8):889–891. doi: 10.1093/plankt/23.8.889.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Stosch HA. 1973. Observations on vegetative reproduction and sexual life cycles of two freshwater dinoflagellates, Gymnodinium pseudopalustre schiller and Woloszynskia apiculata sp. Brit J Phycol. 8(2):105–134. doi: 10.1080/00071617300650141.
   Google Scholar
• Wall D, Dale B. 1968. Modern dinoflagellate cysts and evolution of the peridinales. Micropaleontol. 14(3):265–304. doi: 10.2307/1484690.
   Google Scholar
• Wang DZ, Ho AYT, Hsieh DPH. 2002. Production of C2 toxin by Alexandrium Tamarense CI01 using different culture methods. J Appl Phycol.14(6):461–468. doi: 10.1023/A:1022326103191.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Hsieh DPH. 2001. Dynamics of C2 toxin and chlorophyll-a formation in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium Tamarense during large scale cultivation. Toxicon. 39(10):1533–1536. doi: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00125-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wängberg S-Å, Persson A, Karlson B. 1997. Effects of UV-B radiation on synthesis of mycosporine-like amino acid and growth in Heterocapsa triquetra (Dinophyceae). J Photochem Photobiol, B. 37(1–2):141–146. doi: 10.1016/S1011-1344(96)07350-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wildish D, Lassus P, Martin J, Saulnier A, Bardouil M. 1998. Effect of the PSP-causing dinoflagellate, Alexandrium sp. on the initial feeding response of Crassostrea gigas. Aquat Living Resour. 11(1):35–43. doi: 10.1016/S0990-7440(99)80029-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong JTY, Kwok ACM. 2005. Proliferation of dinoflagellates: blooming or bleaching. Bioessays. 27(7):730–740. doi: 10.1002/bies.20250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyatt T, Jenkinson IR. 1997. Notes on Alexandrium population dynamics. J Plankton Res. 19(5):551–575. doi: 10.1093/plankt/19.5.551.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiaoping G, Dodge JD, Lewis J. 1989a. An ultrastructural study of planozygotes and encystment of a marine dinoflagellate, Scrippsiella sp. Brit Phycol J. 24 (2):153–165. doi: 10.1080/00071618900650151.
   Google Scholar
• Xiaoping G, Dodge JD, Lewis J. 1989b. Gamete mating and fusion in the marine dinoflagellate Scrippsiella sp. Phycologia. 28(3):342–351. doi: 10.2216/i0031-8884-28-3-342.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zonneveld KAF. 1997. New species of organic walled dinoflagellate cysts from modern sediments of the Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean). Rev Palaeobot Palynol. 97(3–4):319–337. doi: 10.1016/S0034-6667(97)00002-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar