Reduction in diarrhoea rates after household water filter distribution in small and remote communities in Liberia

References

• Ajjampur, S. S. R., Koshy, B., Venkataramani, M., Sarkar, R., Joseph, A. A., Jacob, K. S., Ward, H., & Kang, G. (2011). Effect of cryptosporidial and giardial diarrhoea on social maturity, intelligence and physical growth in children in a semi-urban slum in south India. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 31(3), 205–13. https://doi.org/10.1179/1465328111Y.0000000003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert, J., Luoto, J., & Levine, D. (2010). End-user preferences for and performance of competing POU water treatment technologies among the rural poor of Kenya. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(12), 4426–4432. https://doi.org/10.1021/es1000566
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alford, K. R., Rosendale, K. D., Koroma, A. H., DeRuiter, S. L., Pruim, R., VanHorn, J. E., Bone, M., Deighton, J., DenHaan, A., Koeman, J., Kornoelje, S., Lika, B., Stratton, A., Walls, L., & Wang, N. (2022). Evaluating filter functionality and user competence after a hollow fiber membrane filter intervention in Liberia. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(12), 851–861. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.075
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apeh, C. C., Onyekuru, A. N., Offorma, J. T., & Akogwu, C. I. (2020). Rural transformation in Liberia: Strategies for civil society participation. International NGO Journal, 15(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.5897/INGOJ2018.0332
   Google Scholar
• Armah, F. A., Ekumah, B., Yawson, D. O., Odoi, J. O., Afitiri, A. -R., & Nyieku, F. E. (2018). Access to improved water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa in a quarter century. Heliyon, 4(11), e00931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00931
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bain, R., Johnston, R., & Slaymaker, T. (2020). Drinking water quality and the SDGs. Npj Clean Water, 3(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-020-00085-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin-Chung, J., Amin, N., Ercumen, A., Arnold, B. F., Hubbard, A. E., Unicomb, L., & Colford, J. M., Jr. (2018). A randomized controlled trial to measure spillover effects of a combined water, sanitation, and handwashing intervention in rural Bangladesh. American Journal of Epidemiology, 187(8), 1733–1744. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin-Chung, J., Arnold, B. F., Berger, D., Luby, S. P., Miguel, E., Colford, J. M., Jr., & Hubbard, A. E. (2018). Spillover effects in epidemiology: Parameters, study designs and methodological considerations. International Journal of Epidemiology, 47(1), 332–347. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyx201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, M. E., Kristensen, K., van Benthem, K. J., Magnusson, A., Berg, C. W., Nielsen, A., Skaug, H. J., Mächler, M., & Bolker, B. M. (2017). GlmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R Journal, 9(2), 378. https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2017-066
   Google Scholar
• Burt, M., & Keiru, B. J. (2011). Strengthening post-conflict peacebuilding through community water-resource management: Case studies from Democratic Republic of Congo, Afghanistan and Liberia. Water International, 36(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2011.558885
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Global WASH fast facts. https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics.html
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Global Health: Liberia. https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/countries/liberia/default.htm
   Google Scholar
• Chitonge, H., Mokoena, A., & Kongo, M. (2020). Water and Sanitation Inequality in Africa: Challenges for SDG 6. In M. Ramutsindela & D. Mickler (Eds.), Africa and the Sustainable Development Goals (pp. 207–218). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14857-7_20
   Google Scholar
• Clasen, T. F., Alexander, K. T., Sinclair, D., Boisson, S., Peletz, R., Chang, H. H., Majorin, F., & Cairncross, S. (2015). Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2015(10), 10. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004794.pub3
   Google Scholar
• Dagnew, A. B., Tewabe, T., Miskir, Y., Eshetu, T., Kefelegn, W., Zerihun, K., Urgessa, M., & Teka, T. (2019). Prevalence of diarrhea and associated factors among under-five children in Bahir Dar city, Northwest Ethiopia, 2016: A cross-sectional study. BMC Infectious Diseases, 19(1), 417. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-019-4030-3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeBoer, M. D., Lima, A. A., Oría, R. B., Scharf, R. J., Moore, S. R., Luna, M. A., & Guerrant, R. L. (2012). Early childhood growth failure and the developmental origins of adult disease: Do enteric infections and malnutrition increase risk for the metabolic syndrome? Nutrition Reviews, 70(11), 642–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00543.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabiszewski de Aceituno, A. M., Stauber, C. E., Walters, A. R., Meza Sanchez, R. E., & Sobsey, M. D. (2012). A randomized controlled trial of the plastic-housing biosand filter and its impact on diarrheal disease in Copan, Honduras. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 86(6), 913–921. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerrant, R. L., DeBoer, M. D., Moore, S. R., Scharf, R. J., & Lima, A. A. M. (2013). The impoverished gut—A triple burden of diarrhoea, stunting and chronic disease. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 10(4), 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2012.239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiwani, S. S., & Antiporta, D. A. (2020). Inequalities in access to water and soap matter for the COVID-19 response in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal for Equity in Health, 19(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01199-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamara, J. K., Galukande, M., Maeda, F., Luboga, S., & Renzaho, A. M. N. (2017). Understanding the challenges of improving sanitation and hygiene outcomes in a community based intervention: A cross-sectional study in rural Tanzania. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(6), 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, M. A., Nagel, C. L., Rosa, G., Zambrano, L. D., Musafiri, S., Ngirabega, J. D. D., Thomas, E. A., & Clasen, T. (2019). Effects of a large-scale distribution of water filters and natural draft rocket-style cookstoves on diarrhea and acute respiratory infection: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in Western Province, Rwanda. PLoS Medicine, 16(6), e1002812. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komarulzaman, A., Smits, J., & de Jong, E. (2017). Clean water, sanitation and diarrhoea in Indonesia: Effects of household and community factors. Global Public Health, 12(9), 1141–1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2015.1127985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liberia Institute of Statistics & Geo-Informational Services, Ministry of Health [Liberia], & ICF. (2021). 2019-20 Liberia Demographic and Health Survey.
   Google Scholar
• Lindquist, E. D., George, C. M., Perin, J., de Calani, K. J. N., Norman, W. R., Davis, T. P., & Perry, H. (2014). A cluster randomized controlled trial to reduce childhood diarrhea using hollow fiber water filter and/or hygiene–sanitation educational interventions. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 91(1), 190–197. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorntz, B., Soares, A. M., Moore, S. R., Pinkerton, R., Gansneder, B., Bovbjerg, V. E., Guyatt, H., Lima, A. M., & Guerrant, R. L. (2006). Early childhood diarrhea predicts impaired school performance. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 25(6), 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000219524.64448.90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melo, M. C. N. D., Taddei, J. A. D. A. C., Diniz-Santos, D. R., May, D. S., Carneiro, N. B., & Silva, L. R. (2007). Incidence of diarrhea: Poor parental recall ability. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases, 11(6), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-86702007000600009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nauges, C., & Whittington, D. (2017). Evaluating the performance of alternative municipal water tariff designs: Quantifying the tradeoffs between equity, economic efficiency, and cost recovery. World Development, 91, 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.10.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogunyoku, T. A., Nover, D. M., McKenzie, E. R., Joshi, G., & Fleenor, W. E. (2011). Point-of-use drinking water treatment in the developing world: Community acceptance, project monitoring and revision. International Journal for Service Learning in Engineering, Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship, 6(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.24908/ijsle.v6i1.3207
   Google Scholar
• Oriá, R. B., Murray-Kolb, L. E., Scharf, R. J., Pendergast, L. L., Lang, D. R., Kolling, G. L., & Guerrant, R. L. (2016). Early-life enteric infections: Relation between chronic systemic inflammation and poor cognition in children. Nutrition Reviews, 74(6), 374–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavlinac, P. B., Brander, R. L., Atlas, H. E., John-Stewart, G. C., Denno, D. M., & Walson, J. L. (2018). Interventions to reduce post-acute consequences of diarrheal disease in children: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 208. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5092-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peletz, R., Simuyandi, M., Simunyama, M., Sarenje, K., Kelly, P., & Clasen, T. (2013). Follow-up study to assess the use and performance of household filters in Zambia. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 89(6), 1190–1194. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkerton, R., Oriá, R. B., Lima, A. A. M., Rogawski, E. T., Oriá, M. O. B., Patrick, P. D., Moore, S. R., Wiseman, B. L., Niehaus, M. D., & Guerrant, R. L. (2016). Early childhood diarrhea predicts cognitive delays in later childhood independently of malnutrition. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(5), 1004–1010. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pooi, C. K., & Ng, H. Y. (2018). Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities. Npj Clean Water, 1(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0
   Google Scholar
• Raimann, J. G., Boaheng, J. M., Narh, P., Johnson, S., Donald, L., Zhang, H., Port, F., & Levin, N. W. (2019). Decentralized water purification using novel membrane filtration technology approach to improve community health. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints201909.0175.v1
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://rstudio.com/
   Google Scholar
• Ren, D., Colosi, L. M., & Smith, J. A. (2013). Evaluating the sustainability of ceramic filters for point-of-use drinking water treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(19), 11206–11213. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4026084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard, S. A., Black, R. E., Gilman, R. H., Guerrant, R. L., Kang, G., Lanata, C. F., Mølbak, K., Rasmussen, Z. A., Sack, R. B., Valentiner-Branth, P., Checkley, W., & for the Childhood Malnutrition and Infection Network. (2013). Diarrhea in early childhood: Short-term association with weight and long-term association with length. American Journal of Epidemiology, 178(7), 1129–1138. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa, G., Kelly, P., & Clasen, T. (2016). Consistency of use and effectiveness of household water treatment practices among urban and rural populations claiming to treat their drinking water at home: A case study in Zambia. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(2), 445–455. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RStudio Team. (2021). RStudio: Integrated Development for R. RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com/
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, W. P., Luby, S. P., Genser, B., Barreto, M. L., & Clasen, T. (2007). Estimating the longitudinal prevalence of diarrhea and other episodic diseases: Continuous versus intermittent surveillance. Epidemiology (Cambridge Mass), 18(5), 537–543. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318093f3ce
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sisson, A. J., Wampler, P. J., Rediske, R. R., & Molla, A. R. (2013). An assessment of long-term biosand filter use and sustainability in the Artibonite Valley near Deschapelles, Haiti. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 3(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.092
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobsey, M. D., Stauber, C. E., Casanova, L. M., Brown, J. M., & Elliott, M. A. (2008). Point of use household drinking water filtration: A practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(12), 4261–4267. https://doi.org/10.1021/es702746n
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarleton, J. L., Haque, R., Mondal, D., Shu, J., Farr, B. M., & Petri, W. A. (2006). Cognitive effects of diarrhea, malnutrition, and entamoeba histolytica infection on school age children in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 74(3), 475–481. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2006.74.475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tintle, N., Heynen, A., Van De Griend, K., Ulrich, R., Ojo, M., Boven, E., Brokus, S., Wade, R., & Best, A. A. (2019). Evaluating the efficacy of point-of-use water filtration units in Fiji. Tropical Medicine and Health, 47(1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0175-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tintle, N., Van De Griend, K., Ulrich, R., Wade, R. D., Baar, T. M., Boven, E., Cooper, C. E. A., Couch, O., Eekhoff, L., Fry, B., Goszkowicz, G. K., Hecksel, M. A., Heynen, A., Laughlin, J. A., Les, S. M., Lombard, T. R., Munson, B. D., Peterson, J. M., Schumann, E., & Best, A. A. (2021). Diarrhea prevalence in a randomized, controlled prospective trial of point-of-use water filters in homes and schools in the Dominican Republic. Tropical Medicine and Health, 49(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-020-00291-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations. (2021). Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6
   Google Scholar
• Water Filters. (n.d.). Sawyer International. Retrieved July 5, 2021, from https://international.sawyer.com/water-filters/
   Google Scholar
• WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene. (2021). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2000-2020. WHO and UNICEF. https://washdata.org/report/jmp-2021-wash-households
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, J., Prüss-Ustün, A., Cumming, O., Bartram, J., Bonjour, S., Cairncross, S., Clasen, T., Colford, J. M., Curtis, V., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M. C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P. R., Jeandron, A., Johnston, R. B., Mäusezahl, D., Mathers, C., Neira, M., & Higgins, J. P. T. (2014). Systematic review: Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: Systematic review and meta-regression. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 19(8), 928–942. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2019, June 14). Drinking water. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water
   Google Scholar